An aerosol is a suspension of fine solid particles or liquid droplets in air or another gas.^[1] Aerosols can be generated from natural or human causes. The term aerosol commonly refers to the mixture of particulates in air, and not to the particulate matter alone.^[2] Examples of natural aerosols are fog, mist or dust. Examples of human caused aerosols include particulate air pollutants, mist from the discharge at hydroelectric dams, irrigation mist, perfume from atomizers, smoke, dust, sprayed pesticides, and medical treatments for respiratory illnesses.^[3]

The liquid or solid particles in an aerosol have diameters typically less than 1 μm. Larger particles with a significant settling speed make the mixture a suspension, but the distinction is not clear. In everyday language, aerosol often refers to a dispensing system that delivers a consumer product from a spray can.

Diseases can spread by means of small droplets in the breath,^[4] sometimes called bioaerosols.^[5]

Definitions

Aerosol is defined as a suspension system of solid or liquid particles in a gas. An aerosol includes both the particles and the suspending gas, which is usually air.^[1] Meteorologists usually refer them as particle matter - PM2.5 or PM10, depending on their size.^[6] Frederick G. Donnan presumably first used the term aerosol during World War I to describe an aero-solution, clouds of microscopic particles in air. This term developed analogously to the term hydrosol, a colloid system with water as the dispersed medium.^[7] Primary aerosols contain particles introduced directly into the gas; secondary aerosols form through gas-to-particle conversion.^[8]

Key aerosol groups include sulfates, organic carbon, black carbon, nitrates, mineral dust, and sea salt, they usually clump together to form a complex mixture.^[6] Various types of aerosol, classified according to physical form and how they were generated, include dust, fume, mist, smoke and fog.^[9]

There are several measures of aerosol concentration. Environmental science and environmental health often use the mass concentration (M), defined as the mass of particulate matter per unit volume, in units such as μg/m³. Also commonly used is the number concentration (N), the number of particles per unit volume, in units such as number per m³ or number per cm³.^[10]

Particle size has a major influence on particle properties, and the aerosol particle radius or diameter (d_p) is a key property used to characterise aerosols.

Aerosols vary in their dispersity. A monodisperse aerosol, producible in the laboratory, contains particles of uniform size. Most aerosols, however, as polydisperse colloidal systems, exhibit a range of particle sizes.^[8] Liquid droplets are almost always nearly spherical, but scientists use an equivalent diameter to characterize the properties of various shapes of solid particles, some very irregular. The equivalent diameter is the diameter of a spherical particle with the same value of some physical property as the irregular particle.^[11] The equivalent volume diameter (d_e) is defined as the diameter of a sphere of the same volume as that of the irregular particle.^[12] Also commonly used is the aerodynamic diameter,  d_a.

Generation and applications

People generate aerosols for various purposes, including:

• as test aerosols for calibrating instruments, performing research, and testing sampling equipment and air filters;^[13]
• to deliver deodorants, paints, and other consumer products in sprays;^[14]
• for dispersal and agricultural application
• for medical treatment of respiratory disease;^[15] and
• in fuel injection systems and other combustion technology.^[16]

Some devices for generating aerosols are:^[3]

• Aerosol spray
• Atomizer nozzle or nebulizer
• Electrospray
• Electronic cigarette
• Vibrating orifice aerosol generator (VOAG)

In the atmosphere

Several types of atmospheric aerosol have a significant effect on Earth's climate: volcanic, desert dust, sea-salt, that originating from biogenic sources and human-made. Volcanic aerosol forms in the stratosphere after an eruption as droplets of sulfuric acid that can prevail for up to two years, and reflect sunlight, lowering temperature. Desert dust, mineral particles blown to high altitudes, absorb heat and may be responsible for inhibiting storm cloud formation. Human-made sulfate aerosols, primarily from burning oil and coal, affect the behavior of clouds.^[17]

Although all hydrometeors, solid and liquid, can be described as aerosols, a distinction is commonly made between such dispersions (i.e. clouds) containing activated drops and crystals, and aerosol particles. The atmosphere of Earth contains aerosols of various types and concentrations, including quantities of:

• natural inorganic materials: fine dust, sea salt, or water droplets
• natural organic materials: smoke, pollen, spores, or bacteria
• anthropogenic products of combustion such as: smoke, ashes or dusts

Aerosols can be found in urban ecosystems in various forms, for example:

• Dust
• Cigarette smoke
• Mist from aerosol spray cans
• Soot or fumes in car exhaust

The presence of aerosols in the Earth's atmosphere can influence its climate, as well as human health.

Effects

Volcanic eruptions release large amounts of sulphuric acid, hydrogen sulfide and hydrochloric acid into the atmosphere. These gases represent aerosols and eventually return to earth as acid rain, having a number of adverse effects on the environment and human life.^[19]

When aerosols absorb pollutants, it facilitates the deposition of pollutants to the surface of the earth as well as to bodies of water.^[20] This has the potential to be damaging to both the environment and human health.

Aerosols interact with the Earth's energy budget in two ways, directly and indirectly.

• E.g., a direct effect is that aerosols scatter and absorb incoming solar radiation.^[21] This will mainly lead to a cooling of the surface (solar radiation is scattered back to space) but may also contribute to a warming of the surface (caused by the absorption of incoming solar energy).^[22] This will be an additional element to the greenhouse effect and therefore contributing to the global climate change.^[20]
• The indirect effects refer to the aerosol interfering with formations that interact directly with radiation. For example, they are able to modify the size of the cloud particles in the lower atmosphere, thereby changing the way clouds reflect and absorb light and therefore modifying the Earth's energy budget.^[19]
• There is evidence to suggest that anthropogenic aerosols actually offset the effects of greenhouse gases in some areas, which is why the Northern Hemisphere shows slower surface warming than the Southern Hemisphere, although that just means that the Northern Hemisphere will absorb the heat later through ocean currents bringing warmer waters from the South.^[23] On a global scale however, aerosol cooling decreases greenhouse-gases-induced heating without offsetting it completely.^[24]

Aerosols in the 20 μm range show a particularly long persistence time in air conditioned rooms due to their "jet rider" behaviour (move with air jets, gravitationally fall out in slowly moving air);^[25] as this aerosol size is most effectively adsorbed in the human nose,^[26] the primordial infection site in COVID-19, such aerosols may contribute to the pandemic.^[27]

Aerosol particles with an effective diameter smaller than 10 μm can enter the bronchi, while the ones with an effective diameter smaller than 2.5 μm can enter as far as the gas exchange region in the lungs,^[28] which can be hazardous to human health.

Size distribution

For a monodisperse aerosol, a single number—the particle diameter—suffices to describe the size of the particles. However, more complicated particle-size distributions describe the sizes of the particles in a polydisperse aerosol. This distribution defines the relative amounts of particles, sorted according to size.^[29] One approach to defining the particle size distribution uses a list of the sizes of every particle in a sample. However, this approach proves tedious to ascertain in aerosols with millions of particles and awkward to use. Another approach splits the size range into intervals and finds the number (or proportion) of particles in each interval. These data can be presented in a histogram with the area of each bar representing the proportion of particles in that size bin, usually normalised by dividing the number of particles in a bin by the width of the interval so that the area of each bar is proportionate to the number of particles in the size range that it represents.^[30] If the width of the bins tends to zero, the frequency function is:^[31]

${\displaystyle \mathrm {d} f=f(d_{p})\,\mathrm {d} d_{p}}$

where

${\displaystyle d_{p}}$is the diameter of the particles

${\displaystyle \,\mathrm {d} f}$ is the fraction of particles having diameters between ${\displaystyle d_{p}}$ and ${\displaystyle d_{p}}$ + ${\displaystyle \mathrm {d} d_{p}}$

${\displaystyle f(d_{p})}$ is the frequency function

Therefore, the area under the frequency curve between two sizes a and b represents the total fraction of the particles in that size range:^[31]

${\displaystyle f_{ab}=\int _{a}^{b}f(d_{p})\,\mathrm {d} d_{p}}$

It can also be formulated in terms of the total number density N:^[32]

${\displaystyle dN=N(d_{p})\,\mathrm {d} d_{p}}$

Assuming spherical aerosol particles, the aerosol surface area per unit volume (S) is given by the second moment:^[32]

${\displaystyle S=\pi /2\int _{0}^{\infty }N(d_{p})d_{p}^{2}\,\mathrm {d} d_{p}}$

And the third moment gives the total volume concentration (V) of the particles:^[32]

${\displaystyle V=\pi /6\int _{0}^{\infty }N(d_{p})d_{p}^{3}\,\mathrm {d} d_{p}}$

The particle size distribution can be approximated. The normal distribution usually does not suitably describe particle size distributions in aerosols because of the skewness associated with a long tail of larger particles. Also for a quantity that varies over a large range, as many aerosol sizes do, the width of the distribution implies negative particles sizes, which is not physically realistic. However, the normal distribution can be suitable for some aerosols, such as test aerosols, certain pollen grains and spores.^[33]

A more widely chosen log-normal distribution gives the number frequency as:^[33]

${\displaystyle \mathrm {d} f={\frac {1}{d_{p}\sigma {\sqrt {2\pi }}}}e^{-{\frac {(ln(d_{p})-{\bar {d_{p}}})^{2}}{2\sigma ^{2}}}}\mathrm {d} d_{p}}$

where:

${\displaystyle \sigma }$ is the standard deviation of the size distribution and

${\displaystyle {\bar {d_{p}}}}$ is the arithmetic mean diameter.

The log-normal distribution has no negative values, can cover a wide range of values, and fits many observed size distributions reasonably well.^[34]

Other distributions sometimes used to characterise particle size include: the Rosin-Rammler distribution, applied to coarsely dispersed dusts and sprays; the Nukiyama–Tanasawa distribution, for sprays of extremely broad size ranges; the power function distribution, occasionally applied to atmospheric aerosols; the exponential distribution, applied to powdered materials; and for cloud droplets, the Khrgian–Mazin distribution.^[35]

Physics

Terminal velocity of a particle in a fluid

For low values of the Reynolds number (<1), true for most aerosol motion, Stokes' law describes the force of resistance on a solid spherical particle in a fluid. However, Stokes' law is only valid when the velocity of the gas at the surface of the particle is zero. For small particles (< 1 μm) that characterize aerosols, however, this assumption fails. To account for this failure, one can introduce the Cunningham correction factor, always greater than 1. Including this factor, one finds the relation between the resisting force on a particle and its velocity:^[36]

${\displaystyle F_{D}={\frac {3\pi \eta Vd}{C_{c}}}}$

where

${\displaystyle F_{}}$Zdroj:https://en.wikipedia.org?pojem=Air_droplets
Text je dostupný za podmienok Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License 3.0 Unported; prípadne za ďalších podmienok. Podrobnejšie informácie nájdete na stránke Podmienky použitia.

---