A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | CH | I | J | K | L | M | N | O | P | Q | R | S | T | U | V | W | X | Y | Z | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9
German Empire Deutsches Reich (German) | |||||||||||||||||||||||
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| 1871–1918 | |||||||||||||||||||||||
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| Motto: Gott mit uns (German)[2] Nobiscum Deus (Latin) ("God with us") | |||||||||||||||||||||||
| Anthem: Heil dir im Siegerkranz[3] ("Hail to Thee in the Victor's Crown") Die Wacht am Rhein (unofficial)[4][5][6] ("The Watch on the Rhine") | |||||||||||||||||||||||
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.jpg) The German colonial empire in 1914 | |||||||||||||||||||||||
| Capital and largest city | Berlin 52°31′7″N 13°22′34″E / 52.51861°N 13.37611°E | ||||||||||||||||||||||
| Official languages | German | ||||||||||||||||||||||
| Common languages | List
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| Religion | 1880 census Majority: 62.63% United Protestant (Lutheran, Reformed) Minorities: 35.89% Roman Catholic 1.24% Jewish 0.17% other Christian 0.07% other | ||||||||||||||||||||||
| Demonym(s) | German | ||||||||||||||||||||||
| Government | Federal parliamentary semi-constitutional monarchy[7][8][9][10]
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| Emperor | |||||||||||||||||||||||
• 1871–1888 | Wilhelm I | ||||||||||||||||||||||
• 1888 | Friedrich III | ||||||||||||||||||||||
• 1888–1918 | Wilhelm II | ||||||||||||||||||||||
| Chancellor | |||||||||||||||||||||||
• 1871–1890 | Otto von Bismarck (first) | ||||||||||||||||||||||
• 1918 | Max von Baden (last) | ||||||||||||||||||||||
| Legislature | Bicameral | ||||||||||||||||||||||
• Upper house | Bundesrat | ||||||||||||||||||||||
• Lower house | Reichstag | ||||||||||||||||||||||
| Historical era | New Imperialism • World War I | ||||||||||||||||||||||
| 18 January 1871 | |||||||||||||||||||||||
| 16 April 1871 | |||||||||||||||||||||||
| 15 November 1884 | |||||||||||||||||||||||
| 28 July 1914 | |||||||||||||||||||||||
| 3 November 1918 | |||||||||||||||||||||||
| 9 November 1918 | |||||||||||||||||||||||
| 11 November 1918 | |||||||||||||||||||||||
| 11 August 1919 | |||||||||||||||||||||||
| Area | |||||||||||||||||||||||
• Total | 1,750,000 km2 (680,000 sq mi) | ||||||||||||||||||||||
| 1910[13] | 540,857.54 km2 (208,826.26 sq mi) | ||||||||||||||||||||||
| Population | |||||||||||||||||||||||
• Estimate | 70,000,000 | ||||||||||||||||||||||
• 1871[14] | 41,058,792 | ||||||||||||||||||||||
• 1900[14] | 56,367,178 | ||||||||||||||||||||||
• 1910[14] | 64,925,993 | ||||||||||||||||||||||
| Currency | Until 1873: (1873–1914) German Papiermark (1914–1918) | ||||||||||||||||||||||
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Area and population not including colonial possessions | |||||||||||||||||||||||
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The German Empire (German: Deutsches Reich),[a][15][16][17][18] also referred to as Imperial Germany,[19] the Second Reich[b][20] or simply Germany, was the period of the German Reich[21][22] from the unification of Germany in 1871 until the November Revolution in 1918, when the German Reich changed its form of government from a monarchy to a republic.[23][24]
The empire was founded on 18 January 1871 at the Palace of Versailles where the south German states, except for Austria, Switzerland, and Liechtenstein, joined the North German Confederation and the new constitution came into force on 16 April, changing the name of the federal state to the German Empire and introducing the title of German Emperor for Wilhelm I, King of Prussia from the House of Hohenzollern.[25] Berlin remained its capital, and Otto von Bismarck, Minister President of Prussia, became Chancellor, the head of government. As these events occurred, the Prussian-led North German Confederation and its southern German allies, such as Baden, Bavaria, Württemberg, and Hesse, were still engaged in the Franco-Prussian War. The German Empire consisted of 25 states, each with its own nobility, four constituent kingdoms, six grand duchies, five duchies (six before 1876), seven principalities, three free Hanseatic cities, and one imperial territory. While Prussia was one of four kingdoms in the realm, it contained about two-thirds of the Empire's population and territory, and Prussian dominance was also constitutionally established, since the King of Prussia was also the German Emperor (Deutscher Kaiser).
After 1850, the states of Germany had rapidly become industrialized, with particular strengths in coal, iron (and later steel), chemicals, and railways. In 1871, Germany had a population of 41 million people; by 1913, this had increased to 68 million. A heavily rural collection of states in 1815, the now united Germany became predominantly urban.[26] The success of German industrialization manifested itself in two ways in the early 20th century; German factories were often larger and more modern than many of their British and French counterparts, but the preindustrial sector was more backward.[27] The success of the German Empire in the natural sciences, especially in physics and chemistry, was such that one-third of all Nobel Prizes went to German inventors and researchers. During its 47 years of existence, the German Empire became an industrial, technological, and scientific power in Europe, and by 1913, in PPP, Germany was the largest economy in Europe and the third-largest in the world.[28] Germany also became a superpower, building the longest railway network of Europe, the world's strongest army,[29] and a fast-growing industrial base.[30] Starting very small in 1871, in a decade, the navy became second only to Britain's Royal Navy.
From 1871 to 1890, Otto von Bismarck's tenure as the first and to this day longest-serving Chancellor was marked by relative liberalism at its start, but in time grew more conservative. Broad reforms, the anti-Catholic Kulturkampf and systematic repression of Polish people marked his period in the office. Despite his hatred of liberalism and socialism – he called liberals and socialists "enemies of the Reich" – social programs introduced by Bismarck included old-age pensions, accident insurance, medical care and unemployment insurance, all aspects of the modern European welfare state.
Late in Bismarck's chancellorship and in spite of his earlier personal opposition, Germany became involved in colonialism. Claiming much of the leftover territory that was not yet conquered by Europeans in the Scramble for Africa, it managed to build the third-largest colonial empire at the time, after the British and the French ones.[31] As a colonial state, it sometimes clashed with the interests of other European powers, especially the British Empire. During its colonial rule (1884-1920), the German Empire committed serious crimes, specially the Herero and Namaqua genocide.[32] However, Germany also invested heavily in infrastructure, economics, healthcare, education, and modernization in its colonies. Germany has also left a legacy of language, culture, and a German ethnic minority in Namibia. Subsequent historians would even commend German colonialism from 1905 to 1914 as "an engine of modernization with far-reaching effects for the future."[33]
After the resignation of Otto von Bismarck in 1890, and Wilhelm II's refusal to recall him to office, the empire embarked on Weltpolitik ("world politics") – a bellicose new course that ultimately contributed to the outbreak of World War I. Bismarck's successors were incapable of maintaining their predecessor's complex, shifting, and overlapping alliances which had kept Germany from being diplomatically isolated. This period was marked by increased oppression of Polish people and various factors influencing the Emperor's decisions, which were often perceived as contradictory or unpredictable by the public. In 1879, the German Empire consolidated the Dual Alliance with Austria-Hungary, followed by the Triple Alliance with Italy in 1882. It also retained strong diplomatic ties to the Ottoman Empire. When the great crisis of 1914 arrived, Italy left the alliance and the Ottoman Empire formally allied with Germany.
In the First World War, German plans to capture Paris quickly in the autumn of 1914 failed, and the war on the Western Front became a stalemate. The Allied naval blockade caused severe shortages of food and supplements. However, Imperial Germany had success on the Eastern Front; it occupied a large amount of territory to its east following the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. The German declaration of unrestricted submarine warfare in early 1917 contributed to bringing the United States into the war. In October 1918, after the failed Spring Offensive, the German armies were in retreat, allies Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire had collapsed, and Bulgaria had surrendered. The empire collapsed in the November 1918 Revolution with the abdication of Wilhelm II, which left the post-war federal republic to govern a devastated populace. The Treaty of Versailles imposed harsh terms regarding Germany's territory, economy, military, and responsibility in the war. As a consequence of the treaty, Germany was required to pay 50 billion gold marks ($12.5 billion) in 1921,[34] which led to the Occupation of the Ruhr in 1923. The treaty also limited the army to 100,000 men and disallowing conscription, armored vehicles, submarines, aircraft, and more than six battleships.[35] The consequential economic devastation, later exacerbated by the Great Depression, as well as humiliation and outrage experienced by the German population are considered major factors leading to the rise of Adolf Hitler and Nazism.[36]
History
Background
The German Confederation had been created by an act of the Congress of Vienna on 8 June 1815 as a result of the Napoleonic Wars, after being alluded to in Article 6 of the 1814 Treaty of Paris.[37]
The liberal Revolutions of 1848 were crushed after the relations between the educated, well-off middle-class liberals and the urban artisans broke down; Otto von Bismarck's pragmatic Realpolitik, which appealed to peasants as well as the aristocracy, took its place.[38] Bismarck sought to extend Hohenzollern hegemony throughout the German states; to do so meant unification of the German states and the exclusion of Prussia's main German rival, Austria, from the subsequent German Empire. He envisioned a conservative, Prussian-dominated Germany. The Second Schleswig War against Denmark in 1864, the Austro-Prussian War in 1866, and the Franco-Prussian War in 1870–1871 sparked a growing pan-German ideal and contributed to the formation of the German state.
The German Confederation ended as a result of the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 between the constituent Confederation entities of the Austrian Empire and its allies on one side and Prussia and its allies on the other. The war resulted in the partial replacement of the Confederation in 1867 by a North German Confederation, comprising the 22 states north of the river Main. The patriotic fervor generated by the Franco-Prussian War of 1870 overwhelmed the remaining opposition to a unified Germany (aside from Austria) in the four states south of the Main, and during November 1870, they joined the North German Confederation by treaty.[39]
Foundation
On 10 December 1870, the North German Confederation Reichstag renamed the Confederation the "German Empire" and gave the title of German Emperor to William I, the King of Prussia, as Bundespräsidium of the Confederation.[40] The new constitution (Constitution of the German Confederation) and the title Emperor came into effect on 1 January 1871. During the siege of Paris on 18 January 1871, William was proclaimed Emperor in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles.[41]
The second German Constitution, adopted by the Reichstag on 14 April 1871 and proclaimed by the Emperor on 16 April,[41] was substantially based upon Bismarck's North German Constitution. The political system remained the same. The empire had a parliament called the Reichstag, which was elected by universal male suffrage. However, the original constituencies drawn in 1871 were never redrawn to reflect the growth of urban areas. As a result, by the time of the great expansion of German cities in the 1890s and 1900s, rural areas were grossly over-represented.
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The legislation also required the consent of the Bundesrat, the federal council of deputies from the 27 states. Executive power was vested in the emperor, or Kaiser, who was assisted by a Chancellor responsible only to him. The emperor was given extensive powers by the constitution. He alone appointed and dismissed the chancellor (so in practice, the emperor ruled the empire through the chancellor), was supreme commander-in-chief of the armed forces, and final arbiter of all foreign affairs, and could also disband the Reichstag to call for new elections. Officially, the chancellor was a one-man cabinet and was responsible for the conduct of all state affairs; in practice, the State Secretaries (top bureaucratic officials in charge of such fields as finance, war, foreign affairs, etc.) functioned much like ministers in other monarchies. The Reichstag had the power to pass, amend, or reject bills and to initiate legislation. However, as mentioned above, in practice, the real power was vested in the emperor, who exercised it through his chancellor.
Although nominally a federal empire and league of equals, in practice, the empire was dominated by the largest and most powerful state, Prussia. It stretched across the northern two-thirds of the new Reich and contained three-fifths of the country's population. The imperial crown was hereditary in the ruling house of Prussia, the House of Hohenzollern. With the exception of 1872–1873 and 1892–1894, the chancellor was always simultaneously the prime minister of Prussia. With 17 out of 58 votes in the Bundesrat, Berlin needed only a few votes from the smaller states to exercise effective control.
The other states retained their own governments but had only limited aspects of sovereignty. For example, both postage stamps and currency were issued for the empire as a whole. Coins through one mark were also minted in the name of the empire, while higher-valued pieces were issued by the states. However, these larger gold and silver issues were virtually commemorative coins and had limited circulation.
While the states issued their own decorations and some had their own armies, the military forces of the smaller ones were put under Prussian control. Those of the larger states, such as the Kingdoms of Bavaria and Saxony, were coordinated along Prussian principles and would, in wartime, be controlled by the federal government.
The evolution of the German Empire is somewhat in line with parallel developments in Italy, which became a united nation-state a decade earlier. Some key elements of the German Empire's authoritarian political structure were also the basis for conservative modernization in Imperial Japan under Emperor Meiji and the preservation of an authoritarian political structure under the tsars in the Russian Empire.
One factor in the social anatomy of these governments was the retention of a very substantial share in political power by the landed elite, the Junkers, resulting from the absence of a revolutionary breakthrough by the peasants in combination with urban areas.
Although authoritarian in many respects, the empire had some democratic features. Besides universal manhood suffrage, it permitted the development of political parties. Bismarck intended to create a constitutional façade that would mask the continuation of authoritarian policies. However, in the process, he created a system with a serious flaw. There was a significant disparity between the Prussian and German electoral systems. Prussia used a three-class voting system which weighted votes based on the amount of taxes paid,[42] all but assuring a conservative majority. The king and (with two exceptions) the prime minister of Prussia were also the emperor and chancellor of the empire – meaning that the same rulers had to seek majorities from legislatures elected from completely different franchises. Universal suffrage was significantly diluted by gross over-representation of rural areas from the 1890s onward. By the turn of the century, the urban-rural population balance was completely reversed from 1871; more than two-thirds of the empire's people lived in cities and towns.
Bismarck era
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