Principality of Herat شاهزاده‌نشین هرات
1793–1863
First is the flag of Herat from 1818 until 1842, the second is the flag of Herat in 1856, when Mohammad Yusuf and 'Isa Khan declared Herat a vassal of Britain and hoisted the British flag
Map of Herat at its height in 1848
Capital	Herat
Languages	Persian (primary), Pashto, Turkmen, Balochi
Ethnic groups	Durrani Pashtuns, Ghilzai Pashtuns, Farsiwan, Qizilbash, Aimaq, Tajiks, Hazaras, Jews, Hindus, Baloch, Sistanis, Turkmen, Uzbeks, Armenians
Religion	Sunni Islam, Shia Islam with Judaism and Hinduism as a minority
Demonym(s)	Herati
Government	Unitary Absolute monarchy
Emir
• 1793–1797 (first)	Mahmud Shah Durrani
• March–May 1863 (last)	Shah Navaz Khan
Establishment	1793, independent state established
History
• Tributary to Iran	1804
• Independent state	1818
• Dependent on Iran	1856
• Disestablished	1863
• Established	1793
• Disestablished	1863
Preceded by Succeeded by Durrani Empire Emirate of Afghanistan
Today part of	Iran Afghanistan Turkmenistan

The Principality of Herat^[1][2][3] (Persian: شاهزاده‌نشین هرات), the Emirate of Herat^[4] (Persian: امارت هرات), the Herat Khanate^[5] (Persian: خان‌نشین هرات) or simply Herat (Persian: هرات) was a state in Afghanistan from 1793 to 1863, and one of the 3 main khanates in 19th century Afghanistan (the others being the Khanates of Kabul and Qandahar).

In 1793, Timur Shah Durrani died and Mahmud Shah took control of Herat, becoming independent.^[6] In 1801, the principality was revived by Firuz al-Din Mirza. Herat was prosperous under his reign in spite of multiple Iranian invasions.^[5] In 1818, Mahmud and later Kamran Shah took over, attempting to keep the region stable as a buffer between the Barakzais and Qajars. However, the region was devastated by constant infighting and Iranian invasions.

The Iranian invasion of 1837 weakened the principality, eventually allowing Yar Mohammad Khan Alakozai to overthrow the last ruler, Kamran Shah Durrani, in 1842, and expand the principality's borders towards the Chahar Wilayat, Aimaq territory, and Lash-Joveyn. With his death in 1851 the principality began to decline due to a series of incompetent rulers as well as a civil war and an Iranian invasion in 1856.

The weakening of the principality allowed the Barakzais to intervene and besiege Herat. Ultimately they were able to capture the city on May 27, 1863, ending Herat's existence as an independent state.^[7][6]

History

First Reign of Mahmud Shah Durrani (1793–1801)

Death of Timur Shah

When Timur Shah died on May 18^[8][6][9] or May 21,^[10] 1793, Afghanistan fell into civil war. Timur Shah had 25 sons.^[8] 5 of those would become contenders for power in the following years. Zaman Shah was to be the successor of Timur Shah and was crowned on May 23.^[9] However, two of Zaman Shah's relatives would oppose his ascension to the throne. Humayun Mirza (the governor of Qandahar) opposed Zaman Shah's claim to the throne and rebelled upon receiving news of Timur Shah's death.^[6][7][9][8] In addition to this, Mahmud Mirza rebelled in Herat and minted coins in the name of the dead Timur Shah.^[6] On June 19, Zaman Shah marched out of Kabul headed for Qandahar. He soon captured Qandahar and forced Humayun Mirza to flee to Baluchistan.^[9][8][7]

First Attempt at Gaining Qandahar (1795)

Zaman Shah, seeing Mahmud as a future threat if the Persians had ever invaded again, had decided to try and retake Herat and strip Mahmud of his administrative titles. Zaman Shah had met Mahmud Shah at a battle near Girishk. Zaman Shah defeated Mahmud Shah and this allowed him to besiege Herat. The city however, held out. Eventually, Mahmud Shah's mother had broken a deal between the two brothers. The terms of which would be Zaman Shah being recognized as King of the Durrani Empire in exchange for keeping his governorship of Herat. However, nobody had seemed to give notice to Mahmud's son, Kamran Mirza. Kamran, noticing Zaman Shah leaving back to Helmand, had led his armies in pursuit, and once he had left, Qilij Khan, the governor of Herat in place for Kamran while he was on his campaign had led a rebellion and opened the gates to Zaman Shah. Mahmud and Kamran then fled to Tehran.^[7]

Second Attempt at Gaining Qandahar and Exile (1797–98)

During Zaman Shah's campaigns in Punjab against the Sikhs, the British had seen this as a threat, where Zaman Shah could align the Muslim powers of India against the British in a coalition, as a result, the British had given 10,000 rupees to the Shah of Persia.^[11] Seeing opportunity, Mahmud Shah, along with his brother, Firoz Mirza, had mobilized and marched on Farah and Herat. Instead of the Shah joining directly, he supported Mahmud and Firoz. The two princes captured Farah, and also defeated Qaizar Mirza, Zaman Shah's son, and also besieged Herat. Zaman Shah had abandoned his Punjab campaign and pulled back to Peshawar, the Sikhs recaptured Lahore as a result of this.^[11] Despite Herat in large support of Mahmud Shah, Qaizar had held out. In an attempt to undermine the Persian alliance, Qaizar's Wazir had sent a letter to Mahmud Shah's ally, Mir Ali, and had offered to assassinate Mahmud Shah.^[11] However Mahmud's spies intercepted this message, Mahmud Shah and Kamran were completely deceived, and fled in the dead of the night. The following morning, seeing that Mahmud and Kamran had fled, chaos erupted in the camp, and taking advantage of this, Qaizar had marched out, and routed the Persian army from besieging Herat.^[12] Following this victory, Zaman Shah had returned to Punjab, recapturing Lahore and also placed Ranjit Singh, as an attempt to divide the Sikhs as the nawab of Lahore, and Zaman had returned to Peshawar.^[12]

Reign of Hajji Firuz al-Din Mirza (1801–1818)

Ascension to the Throne and Early Challenges (1801–1804)

With Mahmud Mirza's restoration to the throne on 25 July 1801, Hajji Firuz al-Din Mirza was appointed the governor of Herat. However, due to the internal conflicts in Afghanistan at the time, he became effectively independent.^[13]

The Qajars had conquered Khorasan relatively recently from Nader Mirza Afshar and other independent Khorasani chieftains. On December 24, 1803, Mashhad fell to Qajar's troops and the 15-year-old Mohammad Vali Mirza was appointed governor.^[6] His government was weak, however, he was dependent on the powerful Qara'i chieftain of Turbat-i Heydarieh, Ishaq Khan, to keep his rule stable.^[6] Ishaq was easily able to take advantage of this weakness to expand his dominion at the expense of his neighbors. The Herati-Iranian wars of 1804, 1807, and 1811 were fought over the strategic border fort of Ghourian, as the Qara'i chieftains sought to use the rivalry between Mashhad and Herat to their own advantage.^[6]

Conflict Over Ghourian (1804–1813)

In December 1804, Ishaq Khan Qara'i seized Ghourian from Firuz al-Din Mirza.^[6] He appointed his nephew Yusuf 'Ali Khan Qara'i as governor.^[14][6][8] He was able to exert his influence in the regions of Jam and Bakharz and in a crucial location to get involved in matters with Herat.^[6]

In 1807, Yusuf 'Ali Khan defected to Hajji Firuz al-Din Mirza and abandoned the Qara'i chieftain. He had been encouraging Firuz al-Din Mirza to conquer Khorasan for some time.^[8] Therefore, the Vali of Khorasan, Mohammad Vali Mirza, marched with an army to recapture Khorasan in the spring of 1807.^[14][7] Iranian sources blame the preacher Sufi Eslam and other Afghan mullahs for instigating Firuz al-Din to declare war on the Iranians,^[6] for Firuz al-Din's advisors were against fighting with Iran.^[14] When Firuz al-Din heard of the approach of the Iranian troops, his support for war faded and his general Badal Khan Afghan preferred submitting to the Iranian government.^[6]

However, in the end, Firuz sided with Sufi Eslam's war party (composed of Afghan and Aimaq chieftains). Firuz managed to obtain a fatwa that declared the war against Iran as a jihad. Sufi Eslam called upon 50,000 infantry and cavalry to oppose the Iranian advance.^[14][6][8] Thousands of Aimaqs, Uzbeks, and Turkmens joined his army to fight the holy war against the Iranians. Sufi Eslam was given command of the army. Reportedly, Sufi Eslam was placed in a golden howdah with 366 bodyguards (corresponding to the days in a year) around him.^[8] The Iranian army was composed of 14,000 infantry and cavalry with 12 pieces of artillery.^[14]

The Qajar army encamped at the village of Shahdih, led by Mohammad Khan Qara'i.^[14] On May 19,^[10] May 30,^[14] June,^[7] or June 29, 1807,^[6][8] the Herati army reached the Rubat Charkah field and attacked the Qajars, beginning the battle of Shahdih.^[14] The Herati army was annihalated^{[7][6][5][14]} (with between 3,800^[14] and 6,000^[6] Afghan troops killed) and Sufi Eslam was beheaded by a cannonball. The Iranians then besieged Herat for 40 days before Firuz al-Din capitulated and sent 3 years of taxes to the Iranian government.^[14]

In 1811, Firuz al-Din Mirza refused to pay his annual tribute to Iran.^[14] As a result, in July 1811^[6] Mohammad Vali Mirza marched from Bakharz to Ghourian, and from there to Pul-i Nuqrah. He gave the order to sack the surrounding area, forcing Firuz al-Din to come to peace terms. He paid his taxes to the Iranian government and promised to pay his yearly tribute. In addition to this Firuz sent his son, Malik Husayn Mirza, as a hostage.^[14]

Khorasan Rebellion and War with Iran (1813–1818)

In the summer of 1813 relations between Mohammad Vali Mirza, the governor of Khorasan, and the Khorasani tribal chieftains worsened.^[6] Eventually, the khans held a conference on the Turkmen steppe where they decided to revolt and depose Mohammad Vali Mirza. On August 25, 1813, Ishaq Khan Qara'i and his forces sacked the royal stables at Chenaran,^[6] beginning what would be a 5-year long revolt. The Qara'i Turks, Za'faranlu Kurds, the Aimaq Hazaras of Bakharz and Jam, and other tribal groups participated in the revolt.

In 1814, Firuz al-Din took advantage of the chaos in Khorasan to renew his designs on Ghourian at the urging of Ebrahim Khan Ilkhani Hazara. Firuz's son, Malik Qasim Manda, marched to Ghourian with a large army and besieged it.^[15] Since the governor of Ghourian, Sardar Mohammad Khan Qara'i, had no hope of aid from Iran, he requested help from Shah Mahmud to defeat Firuz al-Din Mirza. Mahmud sent his son and governor of Qandahar, Kamran Mirza, with a large army to attack Herat.^[14][6]

Kamran Mirza surrounded Herat and set up camp in the village of Ruzah Bagh. As a result, Firuz al-Din withdrew from Ghourian and requested aid from the Qajar general Isma'il Khan Damghani, promising to pay 50,000 tuman and have the khutbah read in the name of Fath 'Ali Shah.^[14][5] As a result, when Qajar troops approached Herat and attacked Kamran Mirza's troops, he did not even attempt a defense and retreated back to Qandahar. Firuz al-Din then fulfilled his promise and paid Isma'il Khan Damghani 50,000 tuman.^[14][6]

In the Summer of 1816 Ishaq Khan Qara'i and his son were strangled on the orders of Mohammad Vali Mirza due to his secret support of the Khorasani rebels.^[6] As a result, this made his situation worse and as stated by Riyazi: "In the year 1231 A.H, equivalent to 1815 A.D., due to the killing of the late Sardar Muhammad Ishaq Khan Qara'i and Hasan 'Isa Khan, his son, the state of affairs in Khurasan and its frontiers became chaotic. The tribal chiefs and leaders of the inhabitants of each locality and clan revolted."^[14] Firuz al-Din used the revolt as an opportunity to seize Ghourian.^[14][6] Mohammad Khan Qajar was defeated by an alliance between Mohammad Khan Qara'i and Bunyad Khan Hazara and fled to Mashhad.^[6] Bunyad Khan Hazara then raided the city's suburbs.^[14] When Fath 'Ali Shah heard of the loss of Ghourian, he recalled Mohammad Vali Mirza and appointed Hasan 'Ali Mirza "Shuja al-Saltana" as governor, sending 10,000 men with him to put Khorasan back in order.^[14][6]

On April 4, 1817, Hasan 'Ali Mirza marched towards Herat with the support of the Za'faranlu and Qara'i tribes.^[6] The Qajar army marched through the district of Jam and took the fort of Mahmudabad.^[16] A day later Jam was occupied and the Qajars killed so many Hazaras that they were able to create a tower of skulls.^[6] Hasan 'Ali Mirza then marched towards Ghourian and then reached the village of Shakiban and set camp at Pul-i Nuqrah. Firuz al-Din's troops and some Afghan sipahis set up earthworks outside the Citadel of Herat and prepared to defend the city.^[14] Hasan 'Ali Mirza ordered half of the army to attack and the other half to set up earthworks behind the Injil River. After repreated attacked by Iranian forces, Firuz al-Din capitulated and sent 50,000 tuman in tribute as well as agreeing to read the Khutbah in the name of Fath 'Ali Shah.^[14]

The prince then marched into the territory of the Aimaq tribes, to punish the Aimaq Hazaras for hosting Bunyad Khan as a refugee from Iranian troops. However, in the summer of 1817 they were defeated at Darra-yi Bum and forced to retreat.^[6]

Fateh Khan's rule and deposition of Shah Mahmud (April 1818–Late 1818)

Zdroj:https://en.wikipedia.org?pojem=Herat_(1793–1863)
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