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Spurious languages are languages that have been reported as existing in reputable works, while other research has reported that the language in question did not exist. Some spurious languages have been proven to not exist. Others have very little evidence supporting their existence, and have been dismissed in later scholarship. Others still are of uncertain existence due to limited research.
Below is a sampling of languages that have been claimed to exist in reputable sources but have subsequently been disproved or challenged. In some cases a purported language is tracked down and turns out to be another, known language. This is common when language varieties are named after places or ethnicities.
Some alleged languages turn out to be hoaxes, such as the Kukurá language of Brazil or the Taensa language of Louisiana. Others are honest errors that persist in the literature despite being corrected by the original authors; an example of this is Hongote, the name given in 1892 to two Colonial word lists, one of Tlingit and one of a Salishan language, that were mistakenly listed as Patagonian. The error was corrected three times that year, but nonetheless "Hongote" was still listed as a Patagonian language a century later in Greenberg (1987).[1]: 133
In the case of New Guinea, one of the most linguistically diverse areas on Earth, some spurious languages are simply the names of language surveys that the data was published under. Examples are Mapi, Kia, Upper Digul, Upper Kaeme, listed as Indo-Pacific languages in Ruhlen 1987; these are actually rivers that gave their names to language surveys in the Greater Awyu languages and Ok languages of New Guinea.[2]
Dubious languages
Dubious languages are those whose existence is uncertain. They include:
- Oropom (Uganda)
- Nemadi (Mauritania)
- Rer Bare (Ethiopia) – extinct, if it ever existed
- Tapeba (Brazil)[3][4] – a recently created indigenous ethnicity, not a language
- Ladakhi Sign Language – no community to use it[5]
- Dek (Cameroon)
Spurious according to Ethnologue and ISO 639-3
Following is a list of ISO 639-3 language codes which have been retired since the standard was established in 2006, arranged by the year in which the actual retirement took effect; in most cases the change request for retirement was submitted in the preceding year. Also included is a partial list of languages (with their SIL codes) that appeared at one time in Ethnologue but were removed prior to 2006, arranged by the first edition in which they did not appear.
The list includes codes that have been retired from ISO 639-3 or languages removed from Ethnologue because the language apparently does not exist and cannot be identified with an existing language. The list does not include instances where the "language" turns out to be a spelling variant of another language or the name of a village where an already known language is spoken; these are cases of duplicates, which are resolved in ISO 639-3 by a code merger. It does include "languages" for which there is no evidence or which cannot be found. (In some cases, however, the evidence for nonexistence is a survey among the current population of the area, which would not identify extinct languages such as Ware below.)
SIL codes are upper case; ISO codes are lower case. Once retired, ISO 639-3 codes are not reused.[6] SIL codes that were retired prior to 2006 may have been re-used or may have reappeared as ISO codes for other languages.
Removed from Ethnologue, 12th ed., 1992
- Itaem (PNG)
- Marajona (Brazil)
- Nemeyam (PNG)
- Nereyama, Nereyó (Brazil)
- Numbiaí (Orelha de Pau)
- Oganibi (PNG)
- Tijuana Sign Language (Mexico) – added to Ethnologue 1988 by mistake due to a misunderstanding, removed in 1992. No evidence that it ever existed.
- Tyeliri Senoufo – the Tyeliri are a caste of leather workers, and do not have their own language
- Wagumi
- Zanofil – name of an ethnic group that speaks Yongkom
Removed from Ethnologue, 13th ed., 1996
- Bibasa (PNG) – described as "isolate in need of survey" in the 12th ed.
Removed from Ethnologue, 14th ed., 2000
- Alak 2 – a mislabeled fragment of a word list[7]
- Dzorgai , Kortse , Pingfang , Thochu , Lofuchai (Lophuchai) , Wagsod – old names for Qiangic languages, some of uncertain correspondence to currently recognized names
- Hsifan HSI – an ethnic name for people speaking a variety of Qiangic or Jiarongic languages
- Scandinavian Pidgin Sign Language SPF – normal inter-language contact, not an established pidgin
- Wutana (Nigeria) WUW – an ethnic name
Removed from Ethnologue, 15th ed., 2005
edit- Jiji JIJ[8]
- Kalanke CKN[9]
- Lewada-Dewara LWD, incl. Balamula/Mataru[10]
- Lowland Semang ORB[11] (though other languages without ISO codes, such as Wila', are also called Lowland Semang)
- Mutús MUF[12] – suspected to exist, e.g. by Adelaar 2005
- Nchinchege NCQ[13]
- Nkwak NKQ[14] – same as Tanjijili? Also a possible synonym for Kwak (retired in 2015)
- Oso (Southern Fungom) OSO – no evidence it is distinct from Fungom and Bum[15]
- Rungi RUR[16]
- Wamsak WBD[17]
Retired 2007
editRetired 2008
edit- Amikoana (Amikuân) akn[22]
- Land Dayak dyk – language family name, not individual language[23]
- Ware wre[24] – Ware is listed as extinct in Maho (2009). When an SIL team in Tanzania were not able to find any evidence of it being spoken, the code was retired.
- Bahau River Kenyah bwv, Kayan River Kenyah knh, Mahakam Kenyah xkm, Upper Baram Kenyah ubm – Any current use is likely either Mainstream Kenyah xkl or Uma' Lung ulu
- Amerax aex – prison jargon
- Garreh-Ajuran ggh (Borana & Somali)
- Sufrai suf – two languages, Tarpia and Kaptiau, which are not close[25]
Retired 2009
edit- Aariya aay
- Papavô ppv – name given to several uncontacted groups
- Europanto eur – a jest
- Chumash chs[26]
Retired 2010
editRetired 2011
edit- Ayi (China) ayx
- Dhanwar (India) dha
- Mahei mja
Retired 2012
edit- Palu pbz
- Pongyong pgy
- Elpaputih elp – could be either of two existing languages
- Wirangu-Nauo wiw – the two varieties which do not form a unit[27]
Retired 2013
edit- Malakhel mld – likely Ormuri
- Forest Maninka myq – generic
Retired 2014
edit- Gugu Mini ggm – a generic name
- Maskoy Pidgin mhh – never existed
- Emok emo – never existed
- Yugh yuu – duplicate of Yug yug
- Lamam lmm – duplicate of Romam rmx
Retired 2015
edit- Mator-Taygi-Karagas ymt – duplicate of Mator
- Yiddish Sign Language yds – no evidence that it existed[28]
- The thx – duplicate of Oy
- Imraguen (Mauritania) ime
- Borna (Eborna) bxx – perhaps a typo for Boma (Eboma)[29]
- Bemba bmy – a tribal name
- Songa sgo – a tribal name
- Daza dzd – retired in 2015 (with the reason "Nonexistent") but that decision was reversed in 2023, bringing dzd back[30]
- Buya byy
- Kakauhua kbf – Kakauhua/Caucahue is an ethnonym, language unattested – see Alacalufan languages
- Subi xsj – duplicate of Shubi suj but that decision was reversed in 2019, bringing xsj back[31]
- Yangho ynh – does not exist
- ǂKxʼaoǁʼae ("=/Kx'au//'ein") aue – dialect of Juǀʼhoan ktz[32]
Retired 2016
edit- Bhatola btl
- Cagua cbh
- Chipiajes cbe – a Saliba and Guahibo surname
- Coxima kox
- Iapama iap – uncontacted, and likely one of the neighboring languages
- Kabixí xbx – generic name for Parecis, Nambiquaras, or any hostile group (see Cabixi language for one specific use)
- Runa rna
- Savara (Dravidian) svr
- Xipináwa xip[33]
- Yarí yri
And several supposed extinct Arawakan languages of Venezuela and Colombia:
- Cumeral cum
- Omejes ome
- Ponares pod – a Sáliba surname, perhaps just Piapoco or Achagua[34]
- Tomedes a.k.a. Tamudes toe
Additional languages and codes were retired in 2016, due to a lack of evidence that they existed, but were not necessarily spurious as languages.
Retired 2017
edit- Lua' prb[35]
- Rennellese Sign Language rsi – a home sign system, not a full language[36]
- Rien rie[37]
- Shinabo snh[38]
- Pu Ko puk – no substantive evidence that the language ever existed.
Retired 2018
edit- Lyons Sign Language lsg[39] – no substantive evidence that the language ever existed.
- Mediak mwx[40]
- Mosiro mwy – a clan name[41]
Retired 2019
edit- Lui lba[42]
- Khlor llo – duplicate of Kriang ngt[43]
- Mina (India) myi – Meena, a tribe and caste name in India[44]
Retired 2020
edit- Arma aoh[45]
- Tayabas Ayta ayy[46]
- Babalia Creole Arabic bbz[47]
- Barbacoas bpb [48]
- Cauca cca[49]
- Chamari cdg[50]
- Degaru dgu[51]
- Eastern Karnic ekc[52]
- Khalaj kjf[53]
- Lumbee lmz[54]
- Palpa plp[55]
- Tapeba tbb[56]
Retired 2021
editRetired 2022
edit- Warduji wrd[58]
- Pini pii[59]
- Judeo-Tunisian Arabic ajt – duplicate of Tunisian Arabic aeb[60]
Retired 2023
edit- Tupí tpw – duplicate of Tupinamba tpn[61]
- Karipúna kgm – duplicate of Palikur plu[62]
- Khoibal kbz – duplicate of Khakas kjh[63]
- Salchuq slq[64]
- Parsi prp[65]
Retired 2024
edit- Mawa wma – listed in Ethnologue but SIL has no evidence it ever existed.
Spurious according to Glottolog
editGlottolog, maintained at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig, classifies several languages, some with ISO 639 codes, as spurious/unattested in addition to those retired by the ISO. These include:
Language Name | ISO 639-3 | Details |
---|---|---|
!Khuai | Duplicate of ǀXam | |
Adabe | adb | Dialect of Wetarese, taken for a Papuan language |
Adu | adu | Duplicate of Okpamheri |
Agaria | agi | all likely candidates in the area already have ISO codes |
Ahirani | ahr | Khandeshi dialect |
Anasi | bpo | Misidentification of Nisa |
Arakwal | rkw | An ethnic group, not a language |
Baga Kaloum | bqf | Should be subsumed into Koga variant |
Baga Sobané | bsv | Should be subsumed into Sitemu variant |
Bainouk-Samik | bcb | Split from Bainouk-Gunyuño due solely to national border |
Bhalay | bhx | A caste rather than a language |
Bubia | bbx | |
Buso | bso | Duplicate of Kwang |
Chetco | ctc | Indistinguishable from Tolowa |
Chuanqiandian Cluster Miao | cqd | |
Con | cno | |
Gengle | geg | Mutually intelligible with Kugama |
Gowlan | goj | A caste rather than a language |
Gowli | gok | A caste, not a language |
Guajajara | gub | Mutually intelligble with Tenetehara |
Ihievbe | ihi | Ibviosakan dialect |
Ir | irr | duplicate of Ong-Ir |
Judeo-Berber | jbe | According to Glottolog, Jewish Berbers speak no differently than Muslim Berbers. However, there are claims, listed in the linked article, that this is not true. |
Kang | kyp | |
Kannada Kurumba | kfi | |
Katukína | kav | Historical form of modern-day language, not considered distinct |
Kayort | kyv | Duplicate of Rajbanshi |
Kisankasa | kqh | |
Kofa | kso | Duplicate of Bata |
Kpatili | kpm | Purportedly the original language of the Kpatili people, who now speak Gbayi, but any such language is unattested |
Kuanhua | xnh | Insufficient attestion; possibly Khmu |
Kuku-Mangk | xmq | |
Lama (Myanmar) | lay | Duplicate of Nung |
Lambichhong | lmh | Yakkha language; name exists due to form errors |
Lang'e | yne | |
Laopang | lbg | Undocumented Loloish language |
Loarki | lrk | Also covered under Gade Lohar (gda) |
Lopi | lov | Undocumented Loloish language |
Lumba-Yakkha | luu | Yakkha language; name exists due to form errors |
Munda | unx | Duplicate of Mundari |
Ndonde Hamba | njd | Dialect of Makonde language |
Norra | nrr | Duplicate of Nung |
Northwestern Fars | faz | all likely candidates in the area already have ISO codes |
Odut | oda | Extinct and unattested Nigerian language |
Old Turkish | otk | |
Ontenu | ont | A place rather than a language |
Phangduwali | phw | Yakkha language; name exists due to form errors |
Pisabo | pig | Asserted to be both unattested and non-distinct by Glottolog |
Pokangá | pok | Spurious misidentification of Waimajã |
Potiguára | pog | Unattested language, Glottolog argues is likely Old Tupi |
Puimei Naga | npu | Indistinct variety of one of the related languages |
Putoh | put | |
Quetzaltepec Mixe | pxm | |
Rufiji | rui | |
Skagit | ska | duplicate of Lushootseed |
Snohomish | sno | duplicate of Lushootseed |
Southern Lolopo | ysp | Confused entry duplicating either Lolopo or Miqie |
Southwestern Nisu | nsv | Likely confused additional Nisu language (spoken in same locations as Southern Nisu) |
Syerna Senoufo | shz | Should be subsumed into Sìcìté Sénoufo |
Tawang Monpa | twm | Chinese and Indian name for Dakpakha |
Tetete | teb | Unattested, but intelligeble with Siona language |
Thu Lao | tyl | Duplicate of Dai Zhuang |
Tingui-Boto | tgv | Ethnic group speaking Dzubukuá |
Welaung | weu | Place name, not a language |
Yarsun | yrs | |
Yauma | yax |
References and notes
edit- ^ Campbell, Lyle (2012). "Classification of the indigenous languages of South America". In Grondona, Verónica; Campbell, Lyle (eds.). The Indigenous Languages of South America. The World of Linguistics. Vol. 2. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 59–166. ISBN 9783110255133.
- ^ Upper Kaeme may correspond to Korowai.
- ^ Tapeba at Ethnologue (17th ed., 2013)
- ^ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Tapeba". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
- ^ "Glottolog 2.4 – Adabe". Glottolog.org. Retrieved 13 July 2015.
- ^ "ISO 639-3 Change History". 01.sil.org. Retrieved 13 July 2015.
- ^ Sidwell, 2009, Classifying the Austroasiatic languages
- ^ "Ethnologue 14 report for language code:JIJ". Ethnologue.com. Retrieved 24 September 2012.
- ^ "Ethnologue 14 report for language code:CKN". Ethnologue.com. Retrieved 24 September 2012.
- ^ "Ethnologue 14 report for language code:LWD". Ethnologue.com. Retrieved 24 September 2012.
- ^ "Ethnologue 14 report for language code:ORB". Ethnologue.com. Retrieved 24 September 2012.
- ^ "Ethnologue 14 report for language code:MUF". Ethnologue.com. Retrieved 24 September 2012.
- ^ "Ethnologue 14 report for language code:NCQ". Ethnologue.com. Retrieved 24 September 2012.
- ^ "Ethnologue 14 report for language code:NKQ". Ethnologue.com. Retrieved 24 September 2012.
- ^ "Ethnologue 14 report for language code:OSO". Ethnologue.com. Retrieved 24 September 2012.
- ^ "Ethnologue 14 report for language code:RUR". Ethnologue.com. Retrieved 24 September 2012.
- ^ "Ethnologue 14 report for language code:WBD". Ethnologue.com. Retrieved 24 September 2012.
- ^ Hurd, Conrad (8 August 2006). "Request Number 2006-016 for Change to ISO 639-3 Language Code" (PDF). SIL International. Retrieved 6 January 2019. Zdroj:https://en.wikipedia.org?pojem=Spurious_languages
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