Zamorin of Calicut
1124 CE–1806 CE
The Zamorin of Calicut (1495–1500) on his throne as painted by Veloso Salgado in 1898
Status	Kingdom
Capital	Calicut
Common languages	Malayalam
Religion	Hinduism
Government	Feudal Monarchy
History
• Dissolution of the Cheras of Cranganore[1]	1124 CE
• East India Company	1806 CE
Currency	Kozhikode Panam
Preceded by Succeeded by Chera dynasty Company rule in India
Today part of	India

The Samoothiri (Anglicised as Zamorin; Malayalam: Sāmūtiri, [saːmuːd̪iɾi], Arabic: Sāmuri,^[2] Portuguese: Samorim, Dutch: Samorijn, Chinese: Shamitihsi^[3]) was the title of the erstwhile ruler and monarch of the Kingdom of Kozhikode (Calicut) in the South Malabar region of India.^[4] Originating from the former feudal kingdom of Nediyiruppu Swaroopam, the Samoothiris and their vassal kings from Nilambur Kovilakam established Calicut as one of the most important trading ports on the southwest coast of India. At the peak of their reign, they ruled over a region extending from Kozhikode Kollam to the forested borders of Panthalayini Kollam (Koyilandy).^[5][6] The Samoothiris belonged to the Eradi subcaste of the Samantan community of colonial Kerala, and were originally the ruling chiefs of Eranad.^[7][8] The final Zamorin of Calicut committed suicide by setting fire to his palace and burning himself alive inside it, upon learning that Hyder Ali had captured the neighboring country of Chirackal in Kannur.^[9]

Etymology

The title zamorin first appears in the writings of Ibn Battuta in 1342.^[10] In the Portuguese Book of Duarte Barbosa (c. 1516), the title of the ruler of Calicut is given as çamidre or zomodri, derived from the local Malayalam sāmūtiri. In Tuhfat Ul Mujahideen written by Zainuddin Makhdoom II in the 16th century CE, the word is pronounced as Sāmuri.^[2] This was once thought to be derived from Sanskrit samudra ("sea") and have the meaning "lord of the sea". In fact, the term derives from Sanskrit svami and sri (which in combined form becomes tiri),^[11] which Krishna Iyer glosses as "emperor". He gives the complete title as Svami Tiri Tirumulapad ("august emperor").^[10]

The Zamorins used the title Punturakkon or Punthurakon (Victor/Lord of Punthura?) in inscriptions from c. 1100, in palace records known as the Granthavaris, and in official treaties with the English and the Dutch. No records indicate the actual personal name of the ruler.^[6] Punthura may be the place of their origin, or a battle-field, or a port of great fame. The title "Kunnalakkon" ("Lord of Hills and Waves") and its Sanskrit form "Shailabdhishvara" are mostly found in later literary works (such as Manipravalam and Sanskrit poems).^[12]

Seats of power

Thrikkavil Kovilakam in Ponnani served as a second home for the Zamorins of Calicut.^[6][13] Other secondary seats of the Zamorin of Calicut, all established at a much later time, were Trichur (Thrissur) and Cranganore (Kodungallur).^[6] The 147th Samoothiri Raja, Sree Manavedan Raja, who was married to Bharathy Thamburatty from Nilambur Kovilakam, became the last Zamorin in the dynasty's 682 year history to hold power over the Guruvayur Temple.^[14]

The chief Kerala ports under control of the Zamorins in the late 15th century were Panthalayini Kollam, and Calicut. The Zamorin of Calicut derived a greater part of his revenues by taxing the spice trade through his ports. Smaller ports in the kingdom were Puthuppattanam (Kottakkal), Parappanangadi, Tanur (Tanore), Ponnani (Ponani), Chetuva (Chetwai) and Kodungallur (Cranganore). The port of Beypore served as a ship building center.^[6][13]

Calicut

• The port at Calicut held the superior economic and political position in Kerala, while Kollam (Quilon), Kochi and Kannur (Cannanore) were commercially confined to secondary roles.^[15] Travellers have called the city by different names – variations of the Malayalam name. The travellers from Middle-East called it "Kalikooth", Tamils called the city "Kallikkottai", for the Chinese it was "Kalifo" or "Quli".^[16]
• In the Middle Ages, Calicut was dubbed the "City of Spices" for its role as the major trading point of Asian spices.^[17] The Chinese and Middle-Eastern interests in Malabar, the political ambition of the newly emergent rulers, i.e., the Zamorins, and the decline of port Kodungallur (c. 1341^[15]), etc. boosted the prosperity of the port.^[18] The rise of Calicut, both the port and the state, seems to have taken place only after the 13th century.^[16]
• Calicut, despite being located at a geographically inconvenient spot, owed much of its prosperity to the economic policies of the Zamorins of Calicut.^[16][19]
• Trade at port Calicut was managed by the Muslim port commissioner known as the Shah Bandar Koya. The port commissioner supervised the customs on the behalf of the king, fixed the prices of the commodities and collected the share to the Calicut treasury.^[13]
• The name of the famous fine variety of cotton cloth called calico is also thought to have derived from Calicut.^[6]

Panthalayini Kollam

• Also known as "Fandarina" (Ibn Batutah), and "Shaojunan" (Daoyi Zgilue).^[20]
• Located north of Calicut, close to a bay. The geographical location is ideal for the wintering of ships during the annual monsoon rains.^[21]
• Presence of Chetti, Arab and Jewish merchants among others.^[22]

Caste and line of succession

According to K. V. Krishna Iyer, the court historian in Calicut, the members of the royal house of Zamorin belonged to the Eradi subcaste of the sub-caste Samantan of the Nair caste.^[23][24] The Samantas claimed a status higher than the rest of the Nairs.^[6] The Hindu theological formula that the rulers must be of Kshatriya varna may have been a complication for the Samantas of the Kodungallur Chera monarch. So the Samantas – already crystallized as a distinctive social group, something of a "sub-caste" – began to style themselves as "Samantha Kshatriyas".^[18] The Samantas have birth, marriage and death customs identical to other Nair communities.^[12]

The Zamorin follows a matriarchal system where the present king's sister's son becomes the next king. The direct sisters of the Zamorin are always married to Nambudiri Brahmin men. Consequently, the Zamorin's King’s lineage was always half Zamorin and half Nambudiri Brahmin.^[25]

In the royal family, thalis of the princesses were usually tied by Kshatriyas from Kodungallur chief's family, which the Zamorin recognised as more ancient and therefore higher rank. The women's sambandham partners were Nambudiri Brahmins or Kshatriyas.^[26][27] Royal men married Samantan or other Nair women. Zamorin's consort was dignified by the title "Naittiyar".^[28]

The family of chieftains that ruled the polities in premodern Kerala was known as the swaroopam. The rulers of Calicut belonged to "Nediyirippu swaroopam" and followed matriliny system of inheritance. The eldest male member of Nediyirippu swaroopam became the Zamorin of Calicut. There was a set pattern of succession, indicated by sthanams in the royal line. Five sthanams were defined in Calicut. These positions were based on the chronological seniority of the incumbent in the different thavazhis of the swaroopam and constituted what is called in the records as "kuruvazhcha". Unlike in the case of Cochin (Kochi), there was no rotation of position among the thavazhis. Thus no particular thavazhi enjoyed any privilege or precedence in the matter of succession, as the only criterion for succession was seniority of age.^[18]

Five sthanams existed in Calicut, each with its own separate property enjoyed in succession by the senior members of the three kovilakams of the family:^[6]

• 1st sthanam: the Zamorin of Calicut
• 2nd sthanam: Eranadu Ilamkur Nambiyathiri Thirumulpadu (the Eralppadu). Second in line successor to the throne. Eralppadu's seat was in Karimpuzha (in the northeastern region of the present-day Palakkad district). This area of Malabar was annexed from Valluvanadu in the leadership of the then Eralppadu.
• 3rd sthanam: Eranadu Moonnamkur Nambiyathiri Thirumulpad (the Munalpadu)
• 4th sthanam: Edattaranadu Nambiyathiri Thirumulpadu (the Etatralpadu) – mentioned in the Manjeri Pulapatta inscription as the overlord of the "Three Hundred" Nairs.^[12] The Etatralpadu used to reside in a palace at Edattara near Manjeri.^[12]
• 5th sthanam: Nediyiruppu Mootta Eradi Thirumulpadu (the Naduralpadu). Naduralpadu was the former head of the house (Eranadu chief under the Cheras of Kodungallur^[6]).

The three thavazhis were:

1. Kizhakke Kovilakam (Eastern Branch)
2. Padinhare Kovilakam (Western Branch)
3. Puthiya Kovilakam (New Branch)

The senior female member of the whole Zamorin family, the Valiya Thamburatti, also enjoyed a sthanam with separate property known as the Ambadi Kovilakam.^[6] Women were not allowed to be the ruler of Calicut. And so the oldest male member traced became the next Zamorin.^[6]

Historical overview

Brahmanic legends such as the Keralolpathi (compiled in its final form c. 17th – 18 century) and the Calicut Granthavari recount the events leading to the establishment of the state of Calicut.^[6]

There were two brothers belonging to the Eradi ruling family at Nediyiruppu. The brothers Manichan and Vikraman were the most trusted warriors in the militia of the Kodungallur Cheras.^[29][30] They distinguished themselves in the battles against the foreigners. However, during the partition of Chera kingdom, the Chera monarch failed to allocate any land to Nediyiruppu. Filled with guilt, the king later gave an unwanted piece of marshy tract of land called Kozhikode to the younger brother Vikraman (the elder brother died in the battle). The king also gifted his personal sword and his favourite prayer conch – both broken – to him and told him to occupy as much as land as he could with all his might. So the Eradis conquered neighbouring kingdoms and created a large state for themselves. As a token of their respect to the Chera king, they adopted the logo of two crossed swords, with a broken conch in the middle and a lighted lamp above it.^[6][12]

The port at Kozhikode held the superior economic and political position along the medieval Kerala coastline, while Kannur, Kollam, and Kochi, were commercially important secondary ports, where traders from various parts of the world would gather.^[15] The Portuguese navigator Vasco da Gama visited Quilandy (Koyilandy) in 1498, opening the sailing route directly from Europe to South Asia.^[31] The port at Kozhikode acted as the gateway to medieval South Indian coast for the Arabs, the Chinese, the Portuguese, the Dutch, and finally the British.^[32] The Portuguese efforts to lay the foundations to Estado da Índia, and to take complete control over the commerce was repeatedly hampered by the forces of the Zamorin of Calicut. The Kunjali Marakkars, the famous Muslim warriors, were the admiral of the fleet of Calicut. By the end of the 16th century the Portuguese – now commanding the spice traffic on the Malabar Coast – had succeeded in replacing the Muslim merchants in the Arabian Sea. The Dutch supplanted the Portuguese in the 17th century, who in turn were supplanted by the British.^[33]

Travancore became the most dominant state in Kerala by defeating the powerful Zamorin of Calicut in a battle located in Purakkad in 1755.^[34] In 1766, Haider Ali of Mysore defeated the Zamorin of Calicut and absorbed Calicut to his state.^[6][35] After the Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790–1792), Malabar District including Zamorin's former territories were placed under the control of the East India Company. Eventually, the status of the Zamorin was reduced to that of a pensioner of the company by 1806.^[6][18]

Origins and early history

Rulers of Eranadu

Historical records regarding the origin of the Zamorin of Calicut are obscure. However, it is generally agreed among historians the Eradis were originally the autonomous rulers of the Eranadu region of the Kodungallur Chera kingdom.^[6][1][12] The Kodungallur Chera kingdom was a congeries of chiefdoms, which were ruled by local chiefs. The office of the chief/senior prince of Eranad (Eralanadu Utaya) is assumed to be hereditary.^[6][1] The earliest reference to the chief and chiefdom of Eranad is the Cochin Jewish copper plate (c. 1000). Old Malayalam inscriptions name two titles for the rulers of Eranad – Manvepala Manaviyata (c. 11 century) and Manavikrama (c. 12th century). In the later period, Manavikrama, Manaveda and Viraraya were the only names given to male members in the royal family, the Zamorin always being known as Manavikrama. Historians assume that Manaveda might be a corruption of the old Malayalam title "Manaviyata".^[12] Scholars tentatively identify Manaviyata and Manavikrama with the titles of the elder and younger brothers of the famous origin legend.^[12]

The strength of the "Hundred Organisation" of the senior prince of Eranadu was "Six Hundred". Several organisations with same capacity are also found in Ramavalanadu, Valluvanadu, Kizhmalanadu and Venadu. Scholars come across only one nadu with a stronger force, namely Kurumpuranadu, with a force of Seven Hundred although many lesser ones with Five Hundred of Purakizhanadu, Three Hundred of Nantuzhanadu and others.^[6][1]

The following table shows available inscriptions mentioning the rulers of Eranad:

Inscription[36]	Year	Notes
Cochin Jewish copper plate of Kodungallur Chera king Bhaskara Ravi (c. 962–1021)	c. 1000	An old Malayalam royal charter in Vattezhuthu and Grantha scripts. Among others, the chief of Eralanadu, Eralanadu Utaya "Manavepala Mana Viyatan", is a signatory in the charter.[12] As per the charter, while residing at Chera capital Kodungallur, king Bhaskara Ravi granted Jewish merchant Joseph Rabban a plate giving him the proprietorship of the merchant guild Anchuvannam and other 72 special trade privileges. Rabban was also exempted from all payments made by other settlers in the town to the king, and in-turn, all the rights of other settlers in the town were extended to him. The document was attested by the chief feudatories of the Chera king – Govardhana Marthanda (Venadu), Kotha Chirikanthan (Venpalinadu), Manavepala Mana Viyatan (Eralanadu), Rayiran Chathan (Valluvanadu), Kotha Ravi (Netumpurayur-nadu) – and Murkan Chathan the commander of the eastern forces.[12] Anchuvannam was a merchant guild in Kerala organised by Jewish, Christian and Muslim merchants from the Middle East.[12]
Kollam Rameshwaram temple inscription of Kodungallur Chera king Ramavarma Kulasekhara (c. 1089 – 1122)	1102	An old Malayalam royal order in Vattezhuthu and Grantha scripts.[12] The Chera king Rama Kulasekhara, residing at Kollam, sitting in royal council with Arya Brahmins of the temple, the Four Brahmin Ministers, the Leader of the Thousand Nairs, the Leader of the Six Hundred Nairs of Venadu, Punthurakkon Manavikrama – the chief of Eranadu, and other feudatories, made amends for (some) offence against the Arya Brahmins by donating paddy for daily feeding the Brahmins and leasing out a Cherikkal for that purpose to Venadu chief Kumara Udaya Varma.[12]
Anandapuram temple inscription, Thrissur	Immediate post-Chera Period	A temple inscription recording a resolution of the village council (Urutayavai) of Karimukku. The council prescribed a punishment for those who obstructed the Anandapuram temple functionaries or pilfered away temple properties and prevented the temple rituals. In addition to paying a fine, the offenders would forfeit their place in the assembly and their right to protection from the Eranadu Nizhal (warriors).[37]
Trichambaram temple inscription	Undated (c. 11th century)	An old Malayalam inscription in Vattezhuthu and Grantha scripts.[12] The chief of Eranadu Manavepala Mana Viyatan creates an endowment for Tiruvilakku at Trichambaram temple.[12]
Pulpatta temple inscription, Manjeri	Undated (c. 11th century)	An old Malayalam temple inscription in Vattezhuthu and Grantha scripts.[12] The Six Hundred of Eralanadu and the Three Hundred of Etattirai Nadu, among others, make provision for "uttu" by assigning land to the Pulpatta temple. Fine is prescribed for the violation of the rules. The Uralar are authorised to take over from Pattavalan (officer in charge of collection) in case of obstruction.[12]
Syrian Christian copper plates of Viraraghava	1225	The plates records the grant of certain privileges, concessions and monopolies to Iravi Korthan, the chief of merchant guild Manigramam in Kodungallur. It closes with the statement that it was "issued with the knowledge of Venadu, Odanadu, Eranadu and Valluvanadu"[12][18] Manigramam was a famous merchant guild (active in southern India and south-east Asia) organised by native Indians.[12]
Muchundi mosque inscription of Punthurakkon	13th century	An old Malayalam – Arabic stone inscription in Vattezhuthu and Arabic.[12] Punthurakkon (ruler of Eranad) creates an endowment for the Muchundi Mosque.[38] As per the Arabic portion certain Shihab-ud-Din Raihan – a freed slave (atiq) of late Mas'ud – purchased land and constructed the mosque.[39]

Although there is no solid basis for the famous partition legend (the Cheraman Perumal tradition) surrounding the end of Kodungallur Cheras, it is a possibility that following the mysterious disappearance of the ruler, the land was "partitioned" and that the governors of different nadus asserted independence, proclaiming it as their gift from the last overlord.^[6][1]

There is some ambiguity regarding the exact course of events that led to the establishment of Eradi's rule over Calicut, their later seat. Some historians are of the view that the Eradi was in fact a favourite of the last Kodungallur Chera king as he was at the forefront of the battles with the Chola–Pandya forces in south Kerala. The Eradi seems to have led the Chera army to victory. The king therefore granted him, as a mark of favour, a small tract of land on the sea-coast Calicut in addition to his hereditary possessions (Eralanadu province). The Eradis subsequently moved their seat to the coastal "marshy lands" and established the city of Calicut.^[12]

To corroborate his assertion that the Eradi prince was a member of the inner circle of the last Chera king Rama Kulasekhara (c. 1089 – 1122), scholars cite an old Malayalam inscription (1102) found on a granite pillar set up in the courtyard of the Ramashwaram temple, Kollam. According to the inscription, the king, residing at Panainkavu Palace at Kurakkeni Kollam, sitting in council with Arya Brahmins, the Four Brahmin Ministers, the Leader of the Thousand Nairs, the Leader of the Six Hundred Nairs of Venadu, Punthurakkon Manavikrama – the chief of Eranadu, and other feudatories, made prayaschittam (penance) for an offence against the Arya Brahmins by donating cereals for the daily feeding of Brahmins and leasing out a Cherikkal for that purpose to the Venadu chief Kumaran Udaya Varma.^[40][41][12]

Cheraman sword

Duarte Barbosa, in the early 16th century, mentions the "Cheraman sword" among the three swords and other royal emblems of the Zamorin usually taken out in ceremonial processions. The sword was worshipped by the Zamorins in their private temple everyday and especially at the time of the coronation. The Cheraman sword was burnt in a surprise attack by the Dutch at Kodungallur (1670) while the Zamorin was residing with Velutha Nambiyar. A new sword was made in 1672 out of the fragments of the old. The broken parts of the 1672 sword, kept in a fully sealed copper sheath, are still worshipped daily in the Bhagavathi temple attached to the palace of the Zamorins at Thiruvachira.^[12]

Expansions to central Kerala

The 17th century work, Keralolpathi describes the events following the gift of Calicut to the Eradi prince.^[42]

Kozhikode and its suburbs formed part of Polanadu ruled by Polarthiri. The Eradi marched with his Nairs towards Panniyankara and besieged the Polarthiri at his base, resulting in a 48-year-long standoff. The Eradi was unsuccessful, and then he propitiated the Bhagavati, bribed the followers of Polarthiri and even the consort of the ruler of Polanadu and won them to his side. Learning of this treachery Polarthiri fled from Kozhikode. The Eradi emerged victorious and shifted his seat from Nediyiruppu to Kozhikode – then also called "Thrivikramapuram". The Eradis built a fort (Koyil Kotta) at a place called "Velapuram" (port) to safeguard their new interests.^[42][6]

The power balance in Kerala changed as Eralnadu rulers developed the port at Calicut. The Zamorin became one of the most powerful chiefs in Kerala.^[6] In some of his military campaigns – such as that into Valluvanadu – the ruler received unambiguous assistance from the Muslim Middle Eastern sailors.^[18] It seems that the Muslim judge of Calicut offered all help in "money and material" to the Zamorin to strike at Thirunavaya.^[6]

Smaller chiefdoms south of Calicut – Beypore, Chaliyam, Parappanadu and Tanur (Vettam) – soon had to submit and became their feudatories one by one. The rulers of Payyormala, Kurumbranadu, and other Nair chiefs on the suburbs of Calicut also acknowledged the supremacy of Calicut. There were battles between Calicut and Kurumbranadu for a coastal region called Payyanadu. Payyanadu was a part of Kurumbranadu in early times, and was eventually given as a "royal gift" to Calicut. Calicut easily overran the Kurumbranadu warriors in the battle and Kurumbranadu had to sue for peace by surrendering Valisseri.^[6]

The ruler of Calicut next turned his attention to the valley of Perar. Large parts of the valley was then ruled by Valluvakkonathiri, the ancient hereditary chief of Valluvanadu. The principal objective of Calicut was the capture the sacred settlement of Thirunavaya. Soon the Zamorins found themselves intervened in the so-called kurmatsaram between Nambudiris of Panniyurkur and Chovvarakur. In the most recent event, the Nambudiris from Thirumanasseri Nadu had assaulted and burned the nearby rival village. The rulers of Valluvanadu and Perumpadappu came to help the Chovvaram and raided Panniyur simultaneously. Thirumanasseri Nadu was overran by its neighbours on south and east. The Thirumanasseri Nambudiri appealed to the ruler of Calicut for help, and promised to cede the port of Ponnani to Calicut as the price for his protection. Calicut, looking for such an opportunity, gladly accepted the offer.^[6]

Assisted by the warriors of their subordinate chiefs (Chaliyam, Beypore, Tanur and Kodungallur) and the Muslim naval fleet under the Koya of Calicut, the Zamorin's fighters advanced by both land and sea.^[6] The main force under the command of Zamorin himself attacked, encamping at Thripangodu, an allied force of Valluvanadu and Perumpadappu from the north. Meanwhile, another force under the Eralppadu commanded a fleet across the sea and landed at Ponnani and later moved to Thirumanasseri, with intention to descend on Thirunavaya from the south with help of the warriors of the Thirumanasseri Brahmins. Eralppadu also prevented the warriors of Perumpadappu joining Valluvanadu forces. The Muslim merchants and commanders at Ponnani supported the Calicut force with food, transport and provisions. The warriors of the Eralppadu moved north and crossed the River Perar and took up position on the northern side of the river.^[6] The Koya marched at the head of a large column, and stormed Thirunavaya. In spite of the fact that the warriors of Valluvanadu did not get the timely help of Perumpadappu, they fought vigorously and the battle dragged on. In the meantime, the Calicut minister Mangattachan was also successful in turning Kadannamanna Elavakayil Vellodi (junior branch of Kadannamanna) to their side. Finally, two Valluvanadu princes were killed in the battles, the Nairs abandoned the settlement and Calicut infested Thirunavaya.^[6]

The capture of Thirunavaya was not the end of Calicut's expansion into Valluvanadu. The Zamorin continued surges over on Valluvanadu. Malappuram, Nilambur, Vallappanattukara and Manjeri were easily occupied. He encountered stiff resistance in some places and the fights went on in a protracted and sporadic fashion for a long time. Further assaults in the east against Valluvanadu were neither prolonged nor difficult for Calicut.^[6]

The battles along the western borders of Valluvanadu were bitter, for they were marked by treachery and crime. Panthalur and Ten Kalams came under Calicut only after a protracted struggle. The assassination of a minister of Calicut by the chief minister of Valluvanadu while visiting Venkatakkotta in Valluvanadu sparked the battle, which dragged on for almost a decade. At last the Valluvanadu minister was captured by Zamorin's warriors and executed at Padapparambu, and his province (Ten Kalams, including Kottakkal and Panthalur) were occupied by the Zamorin. The Kizhakke Kovilakam Munalappadu, who took a leading part in this campaign, received half of the newly captured province from Zamorin as a gift. The loss of this fiercely loyal chief minister was the greatest blow to Valluvanadu after the loss of Tirunavaya and Ponnani.^[6]

Expansions to Kochi

Calicut faced defeat in their next assault on Perumpadappu swaroopam. The combined forces of Perumpadappu and Valluvanadu resisted Calicut warriors and a vicious battle ensued for three days, at the end of which Calicut forces was on the retreat.^[6]

After a period of uneasy calm in Kerala, Calicut occupied Nedunganadu, a small polity between Valluvanadu and Palakkad (Palghat). Nedunganadu was overran without striking even a single blow. The chief of Nedunganadu surrendered to the Calicut forces at a place called Kodikkuni. Then the Calicut warriors captured a number of smaller villages around Thirunavaya – such as Thiruvegappuram – from Valluvanadu. The Valluvanadu governor tried to overcome the Calicut prince's advance at Kolakkadu. Near Karimpuzha in Valluvanadu, the untouchables – the Cherumas and Panans of Kotta – resisted the advancing Calicut forces. The Calicut won their affection by gifts and presents. Calicut prince was met by an ancestor of Kavalappara Nair, a vassal of Valluvanadu, at Karakkadu. The chiefs under Palakkad surrendered to Calicut at Vengotri, Nellayi and Kakkathodu. Zamorin of Calicut appointed the Eralppadu as the ruler of southern Malabar region during this time. The provincial seat was at Karimpuzha. Talappilli (present day taluk of the same name and coastal regions from Ponnani to Chetwai) and Chengazhinadu submitted to Calicut without any resistance.^[6]

Calicut then completed the subjugation Ponnani taluk from Valluvanadu and captured Vannerinadu from Perumpadappu. The Perumpadappu ruler was forced to shift their base further south to Thiruvanchikkulam.^[6] When Thrikkanamathilakam near Thiruvanchikkulam came under the Calicut control and Perumpadappu ruler again shifted their base further south to Kochi (Cochin, in 1405).^[15][6]

Calicut subjugated large parts of the state of Kochi in the subsequent years. The family feud between the elder and younger branches of the ruling family of Kochi was exploited by the Zamorin of Calicut. The intervention was initiated as Calicut's help was sought against the ruling younger branch. The rulers of Kodungallur, Idappalli, Airur, Sarkkara, Patinjattedam and Chittur supported or joined Calicut forces in this occupation of Kochi. Some of these were the vassals of Kochi. The Kochi chief was defeated in a battle at Thrissur and his palace was occupied. But, the defeated chief escaped to further south. Pursuing the chief to south, the Calicut forces under Zamorin penetrated and occupied the town of Kochi. Unable to withstand the attacks, Kochi finally accepted Calicut's rule. The prince from the elder branch was installed on the throne of Kochi as vassal.^[6]

The battles against Kochi were followed by a battle against Palakkad and the expansion to Naduvattom by a Calicut prince. Kollengode of Venganadu Nambitis was also put under the sway of Calicut during the time. The severe and frequent battles with Valluvanadu by Calicut continued. But even after the loss of his superior ally Kochi, Valluvanadu did not submit to Calicut. The ruler of Calicut followed a custom of settling Muslim families and the families of other Hindu generals who had allegiance to him, in the captured areas of Valluvanadu. Calicut occupied Valluvanadu (now shrunk to Attappadi valley, parts of Mannarkkad, Ottappalam and Perinthalmanna) but could not make much progress into its hinterland.^[6]

Calicut was also successful in bringing the polity of Kolathunadu (Cannanore) under their control. During his expansions, the Zamorin occupied Pantalayini Kollam as a preliminary advance to Kolathunadu. Kolathiri immediately sent ambassadors to submit to whatever terms Calicut might dictate. Kolathunadu transferred the regions already occupied to Calicut and certain Hindu temple rights. The stories about the origin of the Kadathanadu ruling family (Vatakara) are associated with battle of the Eradis with Polanadu. When the Zamorin swarmed over Polanadu, he exiled a Polarthiri royal princess and she was welcomed in Kolathunadu (Cannanore) – one of the Zamorin's rivals polities. After the marriage of a Kolathu prince with this princess the Kadathanadu ruling family was born. The name Kadathanadu refers to as the passing way between Kolathunadu and Calicut.^[43] Some land and Hindu temple rights were transferred to Calicut during a visit to Kollam by a ruler of the Calicut.^[44]

Vijayanagara conquests

Deva Raya II (1424–1446), king of the Vijayanagara Empire, conquered the whole of present-day Kerala state in the 15th century. He defeated (1443) rulers of Venadu (Kollam, Quilon), as well as Calicut. Fernão Nunes says that the Zamorin and even the kings of Burma ruling at Pegu and Tenasserim paid tribute to the king of Vijayanagara Empire. Later Calicut and Venadu seems to have rebelled against their Vijayanagara overlords, but Deva Raya II quelled the rebellion.^{[citation needed]}

As the Vijayanagara power diminished over the next fifty years, Zamorin of Calicut again rose to prominence in Kerala. Zamorin built a fort at Ponnani in 1498.^[6]

An embassy from the Zamorin of Calicut, in which the chief envoy was a Persian-speaking Muslim, came to the Timurid court of Mirza Shahrukh at Herat in the 15th century. Some Herat officials had, some years earlier, on their return journey from the Sultanate of Bengal, been stranded at port Calicut, and on this occasion had been received by the Zamorin of Calicut. Impressed by the description of the Timurid influence, the Zamorin decided to send his own embassy to Herat.^[45]

Abdur Razzaq, an employ of Shahrukh, was soon engaged on a mission to Calicut (November 1442 – April 1443). He carried a series of presents from Herat, including a horse, a pelisse, headgear and ceremonial robes. "As for duties , at one-fortieth, and that too, only on sales, they are even lower that at Hormuz ", says Abdur Razzaq.^[45]

While in Calicut, Razzaq was invited by the Vijayanagara ruler Deva Raya II to his court. The envoy arrived from the Vijayanagara king had "asked" the Zamorin to send the Herat envoy on to his court. He also says the king of Vijayanagara does not possess "jurisdiction" over the kingdom of Calicut, but the Zamorin was apparently "still in great awe of the Vijayanagar king".^[45]

Relations with Yuan and Ming China

It is known that the Tang Chinese ships frequently visited the then major Kerala ports such as Kollam for spices (in the 9th–10th centuries). According historians, the "Nanpiraj" mentioned in the Ling daida can be identified with Calicut.^[16]

From the 13th century, Calicut developed into the major trading centre where the Middle-Eastern and Chinese sailors met to exchange their products. Marco Polo who visited Calicut in 1293– 1294 records that the trade in Kerala was dominated by the Chinese. Ibn Batutah refers to the brisk Chinese trade at Calicut. Wang Ta-yuan – during the Yuan period – describes the pepper trade in Calicut in his work "Tao-i-Chih".^[16][47][48]

Zheng He (Cheng Ho), the renowned Ming Chinese admiral, visited Calicut several times in the early 15th century.^[16] Zheng most probably died at Calicut in 1433 during his seventh voyage to the West.^[47][48]

A major objective of the first Ming expedition (1405–1407) was the kingdom of Calicut. Historians presume that the fleet stayed from December 1406 to April 1407 at Calicut. Ambassadors from Calicut, among envoys from other states, accompanied the returning (first expedition) fleet bringing articles of "tribute" to Nanking in 1407. On the second expedition, in 1408–09, Zheng He again visited Calicut – stopping as well in "Chochin" (Kochi). The envoys in the second expedition (1408–1409) carried out the formal "investiture" of the Zamorin of Calicut "Mana Piehchialaman". A memorial inscription was erected in Calicut to commemorate the investiture. The Chinese titles and gifts (brocades and gauzes) were given to the Zamorin and his retinue by the Chinese envoys. Presumably a stay of about four months was made at Calicut, possibly from December 1408 to April 1409. The third expedition (1409–1411) – the first one to sail to beyond India – also visited Calicut. The fleet sailed on from Calicut to Sri Lanka in 1411. The fourth (1413–1415), fifth (1417–1419), sixth (1421–22) and seventh (1431–33) fleets also visited Calicut.^[49][3] A number of tribute delegations – in 1421, 1423, and 1433, among others – were dispatched by the Calicut rulers to Nanking and Peking. Presents from Calicut included horses and black pepper.^[16] Brocades of several types were presented to some of the Calicut envoys.^[50] Ma Huan visited Calicut several times, and describes the trade in the region. Fei-Hsin also notices the brisk trade at Calicut.^{[16][46][51][52][53]}

The few remnants of the Chinese trade can be seen in and around the present city of Calicut. This include a Silk Street, Chinese Fort ("Chinakotta"), Chinese Settlement ("Chinachery" in Kappad), and Chinese Mosque ("Chinapalli" in Panthalayini Kollam).^[16][46][54]

Relations with the Portuguese

The landing of Vasco da Gama in Calicut in 1498 has often been considered as the beginning of a new phase in Asian history during which the control of the Indian Ocean spice trade passed into the hands of the Europeans from Middle Eastern Muslims. The strong colony of foreign merchants settled in Calicut was hostile, but Zamorin welcomed the Portuguese and allowed them to take spices on board. In Portugal, the goods brought by da Gama from India were computed at "sixty times the cost of the entire Asia expedition".^[57]

The Portuguese initially entered into hostile conflicts with the Zamorin of Calicut and the Middle Eastern (Paradesi) merchants in Calicut. Within the next few decades, the Estado da Índia also found themselves fighting with several leading Mappila trading families of Kerala (esp. the Kannur Mappilas, led by Mammali and the Marakkars of the Pearl Fishery Coast). Kingdom of Calicut, whose shipping was increasingly looted by the Portuguese, evolved into a centre of resistance.^[58] The Portuguese maintained patrolling squadrons off the Kerala ports and continued their raids on departing native fleets.^[59] Mappila and Marakkar traders actively worked in the kingdoms of Malabar Coast and Ceylon to oppose the Portuguese.^[60] Naval battles broke out across Konkan, Malabar Coast, southern Tamil Nadu, and western Sri Lanka. Marakkars transformed as the admirals of Calicut and organised an effective collection of vessels to fight the Portuguese.^[61]

The Kunjali Marakkars are credited with organizing the first naval defense of the Indian coast.^[62] Tuhfat Ul Mujahideen written by Zainuddin Makhdoom II (born around 1532) of Ponnani in 16th-century is the first-ever known book fully based on the history of Kerala to be authored by a Keralite.^[63][64][65] It is written in Arabic and contains pieces of information about the resistance put up by the navy of Kunjali Marakkar alongside the Zamorin of Calicut from 1498 to 1583 against Portuguese attempts to colonize Malabar coast. It was first printed and published in Lisbon. A copy of this edition has been preserved in the library of Al-Azhar University, Cairo.

Francisco de Almeida (1505–1509) and Afonso de Albuquerque (1509–1515), who followed da Gama to India, were instrumental in establishing the Império Colonial Português in Asia.^[57] By the mid-16th century, the Portuguese managed to curtail the vital trade between Calicut and the Middle East. In the end of the century, Kochi was the dominant seaport in Kerala, having surpassed both Kannur and Calicut.^[60] The Portuguese set about breaking the monopoly which Venetians and the Egyptians had so long enjoyed in the trade with Asia. The Egyptians and the Ottoman Turks realised the danger, but internal complications between them gave the Portuguese an opportunity.^[66] Ponnani Muhammed Kunjali Marakkar was eventually executed by the combined effects of the Kingdom of Calicut and the Portuguese state in 1600.^[67]

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Date	Event
May 1498	Vasco da Gama lands in Calicut, and is warmly welcomed by the Zamorin of Calicut. Much to the delight of the discontented Middle Eastern merchants, da Gama's "ordinary" trade goods were hardly suitable for trade in Calicut. The merchandise he carried – no gold and silver – only came handy in the trade on the West African coast.[57] However, the Zamorin of Calicut gave his sanction for opening trade, and assigned a small warehouse with Nairs to guard it and brokers sell their goods.[68] Sale and purchases fails to meet the expectations. Da Gama demands Kerala spices in return for his unsalable wares. The Zamorin replied that he should buy what he needed for gold and silver instead of dumping his stock in exchange, and he must pay the usual Calicut customs duties. After some confusion – the warehouse was robbed once – the fleet leaves Calicut in August. They also took with them some on-board Mukkuvar.[68] It is also known that da Gama erected a padrão in the kingdom of Calicut.[31] The fleet makes interactions – and trade – with Zamorin's rival chief, the Kolathiri (Cannanore) on their return journey.[68]
September 1500	Pedro Álvares Cabral reaches Calicut, rich presents were exchanged, and a treaty of friendship, "as long as the sun and moon should endure", was entered upon. The Zamorin was pleased with return of the Mukkuvas whom da Gama had taken to Portugal.[68][69] Cabral manages to obtain the permission to construct a trading post in Calicut.[68][69] The Zamorin nominates a Mappila named Koya Pakki as the Portuguese broker in Calicut.[6] At the request of the Zamorin, Cabral captures a Kochi vessel passing the port Calicut. The vessel is subsequently restored to the chief of Kochi.[68][69]
December 1500	The merchants of Calicut appear to have effectually prevented the Portuguese from obtaining any large supply of spices. Cabral accused the Muslim merchants of deliberately outbidding them, and sending away all the spices that came to the market. The Zamorin permitted Cabral to search the Middle Eastern ships and "take whatever he found them after paying to the owners what they had themselves had paid and the customs duties to Calicut officers".[6] Cabral seized a Middle Eastern ship at midnight and transfers all its spices to his depot. A general riot is broken out in Calicut. Around 50 Portuguese sailors at the depot are massacred, a few taken captive, by the Muslims. The depot is razed.[6] The Portuguese seize ten of the Zamorin's Muslim ships, at Calicut, execute their crews, and set fire to them and leave port Calicut by bombarding it. Around 600 Malabarians are killed.[68][69]
24 December 1500	The Portuguese, led by Pedro Álvares Cabral, reach the port of Kochi.[68] Kochi Raja, a chieftain at the time, was subordinate to the Zamorin of Calicut.[60]
January 1501	The Portuguese conclude a treaty with the chief of Kochi Tirumalpadu; an alliance of friendship was signed, allowing them to open a factory (trading post). Cabral is permitted to trade for spices, with which he loads his six remaining ships.[69] A Calicut fleet, carrying around 1500 men, appears off the harbour of Kochi. The Calicut fleet holds off. Cabral chases them, but is overtaken by a violent storm which carries him to the sea. He later sails to Kannur, and from there proceeds to Europe.[68]
March 1501	João da Nova is despatched from Portugal to India. He anchors at Anjediva in November and from there sails to Kannur. While travelling from Kannur to Kochi the fleet attacks and captures a Muslim vessel opposite to the Calicut.[68]
December 1501	About 180 Calicut vessels filled with Muslims arrive at Kochi from Calicut, for the purpose of attacking the Portuguese. John de Nueva fires cannon at them, sinking a large number of vessels.[68] The Muslims persuade native merchants all of over Kerala to refuse to trade their spices and textiles with the Portuguese.[68] Owing to the generosity of the chief of Kochi alone, his ships are soon loaded with spices and textiles, and the fleet departs for Europe.[68] The First Battle of Cannanore between the Third Portuguese Armada and Kingdom of Cochin under João da Nova and Zamorin of Kozhikode's navy marks the beginning of Portuguese conflicts in the Indian Ocean.[68]
August 1502	Vasco da Gama returns to India to try to control Calicut. He burns a ship full of Muslim pilgrims – around 700 – from Mecca off the coast of Madayi. The ship also carried a chief merchant from Calicut. This individual – fairly rich – was the brother of Khoja Kasim, the Factor of the Sea to the Zamorin of Calicut.[70] However, the burning and sinking of the ship is not related by any contemporary and reliable sources. Some assume that the description may be "legendary or at least exaggerated".[31] Da Gama is warmly welcomed by Kolathiri at Kannur, and arranges a treaty of commerce. Kolathiri agrees to supply spices at the Kochi prices and obtain "passes" (cartazes) for the ships his subjects. He next divides his fleet; one portion of it is to wage war on all native vessels except those of Kannur (Kolathunadu), Kochi (Permpatappu) and Quilon (Kollam ), which are to be protected by "passes" obtained from the factors at Kannur and Kochi respectively.[68] Vincent de Sodre mistreats Khoja Muhammed Marakkar – a wealthy Muslim from Cairo – who had insulted the Kolathiri.[68] Sailing southwards, da Gama is informed by a Brahmin messenger that the Zamorin have arrested the Muslims who were guilty of the outrage on the trading depot. Da Gama was offered a large sum to pay for the factory goods. He sent back word to say that he did not want money, and also mistreated the Brahmin messenger. Some historians assume that this was an attempt to lure da Gama to Calicut, and then to apprehend him. Da Gama – who certainly thought so – fires cannon at the port Calicut, and kills around 40 natives. The Zamorin tries to counterattack in vain. To starve the city of Calicut the Portuguese plunders rice shipments from Mangalore.[68][31]
November 1502	Da Gama reaches Kochi and signs a treaty of commerce with the rulers of Kochi and Kollam. A factory is set up at Kochi by da Gama; its first factor is Diogo Fernandes Correia.[56] The fleet then sails to Kannur, defeating two squadrons of a Calicut Arab[31] Muslim fleet on the way, and then for Europe on 28 December.[68] While at Kochi (1502), da Gama was visited by a deputation of Christians from Kodungallur. Zamorin of Calicut, after the departure of the Armada, demands to the ruler of Kochi the Portuguese factors left at Kochi should be given to him. The demand is refused by the ruler of Kochi.[68]
1503	The Portuguese crown the new ruler of Kochi, effectively making him a vassal of the King of Portugal.
March–April 1503	Calicut forces of more than 50,000 Nairs attack Kochi. The forces enter the Kochi territory, and occupy Edappalli in March.[68] In a series of engagements, the Calicut forces defeat around 5,500 Kochi Nairs led by Narayanan, the heir apparent of Kochi, near Kodungallur. Narayanan, and his two nephews, are slain in the battle and the Calicut forces cross the backwater to Kochi. The wounded Kochi chief escapes to the island of Vypin with the Portuguese. The Calicut forces burn Kochi. As the monsoon has begun, the Calicut forces, leaving a strong detachment at Kochi, retreat to Kodungallur.[68] Two Italians desert to the side of the Calicut during these battles (these men later construct five big guns for the Calicut).[68]
September 1503	Francisco de Albuquerque, sailing from Kannur, reaches Kochi. The Calicut's blockading forces are easily defeated at Vypin island, and are driven back to Kodungallur. The Portuguese take Edappalli (Repelim).[68] Albuquerque obtains permission to build a fort – Fort Manuel, the first Portuguese fort in Asia – at Kochi. Soon, Afonso de Albuquerque, his brother, arrives at Kochi with three more ships.[68] The Portuguese are starved of spices and textiles at Kochi by the Zamorin of Calicut and the Muslims merchants. Their fleet moves south to Quilon, and with aid of local Christian merchants easily procure the spices, and obtain permission to open a factory.[68]
January 1504	Albuquerque leaves Malabar, his ships laden with spices. Before doing so he concludes a short-lived treaty with the Zamorin of Calicut. The peace is broken by the murder of six Malabarians by the Portuguese.[68]
March–July 1504	Pacheco and a small garrison of 150 men guard Fort Manuel. Around 57,000 Nairs from all over the kingdom of Calicut, assisted by 5 cannon guns and 160 paraos, attack Pacheco at the Edappally ferry. He manages to drive back the enemy several times. The Kochi Nairs provide little help in opposing the Calicut forces. As the monsoon sets in, cholera breaks out among the Calicut forces. The Zamorin of Calicut at last gives up the attempt in despair.[68]
July 1504	Pacheco quells a partial outbreak at Kollam.[68]
August 1504	Pacheco defeats the Calicut troops at Chetwye.[68]
September 1504	Suarez de Menezes arrives in Kannur. He unsuccessfully tries to rescue some of the prisoners taken at Calicut in Cabral's time. He cannons the city of Calicut and sails to Kochi.[68] The fleet raids and burns the city of Kodungallur, held by Patinjattedam chief under the Calicut. The Portuguese spare the Christian houses, shops and churches, but they loot those of the Jews and Muslims.[68]
March 1505	A large Muslim fleet at Pantalayini Kollam in the kingdom of Calicut is destroyed. It had assembled there to take back a large number of Muslims to Arabia and Egypt, who were leaving the kingdom of Calicut disappointed at the trade losses caused to them recently. De Menezes captures 17 vessels and kills 2,000 men.[71][68]
September 1505	Francisco de Almeyda commences building of Anjediva Fort.[68]
October 1505	Building of St. Angelo Fort, Kannur commences. De Almeyda is visited by a Vijayanagara delegation. Francisco de Almeyda arrives at Kochi.[68]
November 1505	Murder of the Portuguese factor António de Sá and his 12 men by a mob in Kollam. Lorenzo de Almeyda, finding 27 Calicut vessels at Kollam, engages and sinks them all. Francisco de Almeyda is crowned the new chief in Kochi.[68]
February 1506	The Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt sends a fleet, commanded by Amir Hussain al-Kurdi al-Askar, into the Indian Ocean. The Ottomans help in the construction of the fleet. The fleet leaves Jiddah only in August/September 1507 and sets sail to Diu (ruled by Malik Ayaz).[72]
March 1506	Lorenz de Almeyda intercepts an armada of 210 large vessels of Turks (Ottoman) and Muslims whom the Zamorin had launched against Kannur. Around 3,000 Muslims are killed in the assault and the Portuguese loss is very trifling.[68]
April 1507