A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | CH | I | J | K | L | M | N | O | P | Q | R | S | T | U | V | W | X | Y | Z | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9
 | This article needs additional citations for verification. (April 2020) |
| Total population | |
|---|---|
| 168,800 [1] (2022) About 2.3% of the Israeli Jewish population, about 1.75% of the total Israeli population | |
| Languages | |
| Hebrew · Amharic · Tigrinya | |
| Religion | |
| Haymanot and Rabbinic Judaism | |
| Related ethnic groups | |
| Falash Mura · Beta Abraham |
Ethiopian Jews in Israel are immigrants and descendants of the immigrants from the Beta Israel communities in Ethiopia who now reside in Israel.[2][3][4] To a lesser, but notable, extent, the Ethiopian Jewish community in Israel is also composed of Falash Mura, a community of Beta Israel which had converted to Christianity over the course of the past two centuries, but were permitted to immigrate to Israel upon returning to Israelite religion—this time largely to Rabbinic Judaism.[5][6]
Most of the community made aliyah from Ethiopia to Israel in two waves of mass immigration assisted by the Israeli government: Operation Moses (1984), and Operation Solomon (1991).[7][8] Today, Israel is home to the largest Beta Israel community in the world, with about 168,800 citizens of Ethiopian descent in 2022, who mainly reside in southern and central Israel.[9]
History
First wave (1934–1960)
The first Ethiopian Jews who settled in Israel in the modern times came in 1934 along with the Yemenite Jews from Italian Eritrea.[citation needed]
Second wave: (1961–1975)
|
_-_MIN._OF_EDUCATION_AND_CULTURE_YITZHAK_NAVON_VISITING_A_KINDERGARTEN_CLASS_OF_YOUNG_IMMIGRANTS_FROM_ETHIOPIA.jpg)
Between the years 1963 and 1975, a relatively small group of Beta Israel emigrated to Israel. The Beta Israel immigrants during that period were mainly men who had studied and come to Israel on a tourist visa, and then remained in the country illegally.
Several of their supporters in Israel, who recognized their "Jewishness", decided to assist them. These supporters began organizing in associations, among others under the direction of Ovadia Hazzi, an Eritrean-born Yemeni Jew who married a Beta Israel woman in Israel. With the assistance of these support associations, a number of illegal immigrants managed to get their status regularized by the Israeli authorities. Some agreed to convert to Judaism, so as to be able to remain in Israel. People who obtained regularization often brought their families to Israel as well.
In 1973, Ovadia Hazzi officially raised the question of the "Jewishness" of the Beta Israel with Israel's Sephardi Chief Rabbi Ovadia Yosef. The rabbi, citing a rabbinic ruling from the 16th century David ben Solomon ibn Abi Zimra, asserted that the Beta Israel were descendants of the lost tribe of Dan, and eventually acknowledged their "Jewishness" in February 1973.[10] This ruling was initially rejected by the Ashkenazi Chief Rabbi Shlomo Goren, who eventually changed his opinion on the matter in 1974.[citation needed]
In April 1975, the Israeli government of Yitzhak Rabin officially accepted the Beta Israel as Jews for the purpose of the Law of Return (an Israeli act which grants all the Jews in the world the right to immigrate to Israel).
Later on, Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin obtained clear rulings from Chief Sephardi Rabbi Ovadia Yosef that they were descendants of the Ten Lost Tribes. The Chief Rabbinate of Israel did, however, initially require them to undergo pro forma Jewish conversions, to remove any doubt as to their Jewish status.
Third wave: (1975–1990)
Operation Brothers
- November 1979 – 1983: Aliyah activists and Mossad agents operating in Sudan, including Ferede Aklum, called the Beta Israel to come to Sudan where they would eventually be taken to Israel via Europe. Jewish Ethiopian refugees from the Ethiopian Civil War in the mid 1970s began to arrive at the refugee camps in Sudan. Most Beta Israel came from Tigray, which was then controlled by the TPLF, which often escorted them to the Sudanese border.[11] Many Ethiopian Jews also immigrated to Israel to flee from the civil war, famine during and after the war, as well as hostility toward Ethiopian Jews.[12] In 1981, the Jewish Defense League protested against the "lack of action" to rescue Ethiopian Jews by taking over the main offices of HIAS in Manhattan.[13]
- 1983 – March 28, 1985: this emigration wave was in part motivated by word of mouth reports on the success of the emigration of many Jewish refugees to Israel. In 1983, the governor of Gondar region, Major Melaku Teferra, was ousted as governor and his successor removed restrictions on travel.[14] Beta Israel began to arrive in large numbers and the Mossad was unable to evacuate them in time. Due to poor conditions in the camps, many refugees died of disease and hunger. Of these victims, it is estimated that between 2,000 and 5,000 were Beta Israel.[15] In late 1984, the Sudanese government, following the intervention of the United States, allowed the emigration of 7,200 Beta Israel refugees to Europe. They immediately flew from there to Israel. The first of two operations during this period was Operation Moses (original name: "The Lion of Judah's Cub"), which took place between November 20, 1984 and January 20, 1985, during which time 6,500 people emigrated to Israel. A few weeks later, the U.S. Air Force evacuated the 494 Beta Israel refugees remaining in Sudan to Israel in Operation Joshua. The second operation was mainly carried out due to the intervention and international pressure of the United States.[citation needed]
Fourth wave (1990–1999)
|
- 1991 (Operation Solomon): In 1991, the political and economic stability of Ethiopia deteriorated as rebels mounted attacks against, and eventually controlled, the capital city of Addis Ababa. Worried about the fate of the Beta Israel during the transition period, the Israeli government, together with several private groups, secretly prepared to continue with the migration. Over the course of the next 36 hours, a total of 34 El Al passenger planes, with their seats removed to maximize passenger capacity, flew 14,325 Beta Israel directly to Israel. Again, the operation was mainly carried out due to the intervention and international pressure of the U.S. Dr. Rick Hodes, an American doctor who emigrated to Ethiopia, was the medical director for Operation Solomon. It was a difficult two days as he covertly arranged for a number of very ill people to be air-lifted to Israel.[citation needed]
- 1992–1999: During these years, the Qwara Beta Israel emigrated to Israel.[citation needed]
Falash Mura (1993–present)
- 1993–present: From 1993 onwards, an irregular emigration began of Falash Mura, which was and still is mainly subjected to political developments in Israel. These immigrants are required to convert from Christianity to Judaism.[16]
- 2018: In August 2018, the Netanyahu government vowed to bring in 1,000 Falasha Jews from Ethiopia.[17]
- 2019: In April 2019, an estimated 8,000 Falasha were waiting to leave Ethiopia[18]
- 2020: On February 25, 2020, 43 Falasha arrived in Israel from Ethiopia.[19]
- 29 November 2020 - 12 July 2023: Operation Tzur Israel (Rock of Israel). The operation was implemented in two phases with the goal of facilitating the immigration of 5,000 Ethiopian Jews to Israel, most of whom had close relatives already living there. The first phase, which ran from 28 November 2020 until March 15, 2021, brought 2,000 Ethiopian immigrants to Israel. The second phase, which began on June 2, 2022, brought another 3,000 immigrants, and concluded on 12 July 2023. [20] [21] [22]
- 2021:
- March 11: Operation Tzur Israel brings 300 Ethiopian Jews to Israel. [23]
- March 15: The first phase of the operation concludes, with 2,000 immigrants brought to Israel.[24]
- November 14: Falasha in Israel stage a protest so their relatives left behind in Ethiopia can go to Israel.[25]
- November 28: The Israeli government approves the resumption of immigration for the remainder of the community from Ethiopia.[26]
- 2022
- February 2: The Israeli Supreme Court issues an interim order halting the immigration of 3,000 Ethiopians with close relatives in Israel, while hearing an appeal alleging many of them had faked their claims of Jewish ancestry.[27]
- March 15: The Court lifts the interim order.[28]
- June 1: Second phase of operation begins with an airlift of 181 immigrants.[29]
- 2023:
- July 12: Operation Tzur Israel concludes with a final flight of 130 immigrants.[21]
- 2021:
Integration and Socio-economic status
The biggest challenge to the Israeli Ethiopian Beta Israel community probably lies in the very low level of formal education of the immigrants. With some exceptions, when they first arrived in Israel, they had no useful training for a developed economy like that of Israel and due to the oral nature of rural living in Ethiopia, illiteracy was very common although young people were better educated, Therefore, the very abrupt transition from village life in Ethiopia to Israel, has been accompanied by adjustment crises which in turn greatly affected their learning and integration into Israeli society.
Despite those challenges, large improvement has been made in terms of educational attainment and socio-economic status in recent years and progress is being made on several fronts.[30]
In 2018 the net income per household among Israelis of Ethiopian descent amounted to 14,027 NIS, compared to 17,779 NIS for all Jewish households and 11,810 NIS for Arab households. The income gap between Israelis of Ethiopian origin the overall population has narrowed from 44% in 2014 to 23% in 2018.[31][32]
In 2021 the percentage of 12th-grade students of Ethiopian descent taking matriculation exams was 92%, compared with 95.2% of the students in the Hebrew education system overall.The rate of eligibility for a Bagrut certificate among 12th grade students of Ethiopian descent is 77.1%(compared to 85.1% in the Hebrew education sector and 74.5% in the Arab education sector) and has been on the rise in recent years(it was 62% in 2018 and 53% in 2013).[33] The rate of eligibility for a matriculation certificate that meets the threshold requirements of the universities among 12th grade students of Ethiopian descent is 56.1% compared to 75.1% in the Hebrew education system overall (excluding ultra-Orthodox supervision) and 51.3% in the Arab education sector. the percentage of students of Ethiopian descent eligible for a matriculation certificate that meets university entrance requirements has been increasing in recent years, and the gap between them and the general Hebrew-speaking students has narrowed from 34 percentage points in 2016 to 19 in 2021.[30][33] [34] This gap is still high in comparison to the gap in matriculation certificate eligibility.
Absorption in Israel
|
Ethiopian Beta Israel are gradually becoming part of the mainstream Israeli society in religious life, military service (with nearly all males doing national service), education, and politics. Similarly to other groups of immigrant Jews, who made aliyah to Israel, the Ethiopian Beta Israel have faced obstacles in their integration to Israeli society. The Ethiopian Beta Israel community's internal challenges have been complicated by: entering a relatively modern country (Israel) from non-modern, rural, remote regions of Ethiopia (compared with other immigrant groups entering from industrialized countries, and who typically possess significantly greater formal education); the disruption of long-standing hierarchies and customs within Beta Israel in which elders lead and guide their community; racial prejudice; and a degree of lingering doubt within a minority of groups regarding the "Jewishness" of certain Ethiopians (e. g., the Falash Mura). However, with successive generations, Ethiopian Israelis have climbed in Israeli society.
Individual Ethiopian Beta Israel had lived in Eretz Yisrael prior to the establishment of the state. A youth group arrived in Israel in the 1950s to undergo training in Hebrew education, and returned to Ethiopia to educate young Beta Israeli community members there. Also, Ethiopian Beta Israel had been trickling into Israel prior to the 1970s. The numbers of such Ethiopian immigrants grew after the Israeli government officially recognized them in 1973 as Jews, entitled to Israeli citizenship.
To prepare for the absorption of tens of thousands of Ethiopian Beta Israel, the State of Israel prepared two "Master Plans" (Ministry of Absorption, 1985, 1991). The first was prepared in 1985, a year after the arrival of the first wave of immigrants. The second updated the first in response to the second wave of immigration in 1991 from Ethiopia. The first Master Plan contained an elaborate and detailed program. It covered issues of housing, education, employment, and practical organization, together with policy guidelines regarding specific groups, including women, youths, and single-parent families. Like earlier absorption policies, it adopted a procedural approach which assumed that the immigrants were broadly similar to the existing majority population of Israel. The Plans were created with a firm belief in assimilation. As noted in this section, results have been disappointing, and suggest that much greater attention needs to be paid to issues of ethnicity.
According to a 1999 BBC article, a report commissioned by Israel's Ministry of Immigrant Absorption stated that 75% of the 70,000 Ethiopian Beta Israel community, living in Israel in 1999 could not read or write Hebrew. More than half the population could not hold a simple conversation in the Hebrew language. Unlike Russian immigrants, many of whom arrived with job skills, Ethiopians came from a subsistence economy and were ill-prepared to work in an industrialized society. Since then, much progress has been made. Through military service, most Ethiopian Beta Israel have been able to increase their chances for better opportunities. Today, most Ethiopian Beta Israel have been for the most part integrated into Israeli society; however, a high drop-out rate is a problem, although a higher number are now edging towards the higher areas of society.
In September 2006, the Israeli government's proposed 2007 budget included reducing Ethiopian immigration from 600 persons per month to 150. On the eve of the Knesset vote, the Prime Minister's office announced that the plan had been dropped. Advocates for the Falash Mura noted that although the quota was set at 600 per month in March 2005, actual immigration has remained at 300 per month.
The first contact with Israel generally led to a culture shock amongst many of the new immigrants. Many of the Beta Israel immigrants, especially those who came from remote villages in Ethiopia, had never used electricity, elevators, flush toilets, or televisions. In addition, the adaptation to the Israeli cuisine was difficult.
The break-up of many of the close and extended families after being brought to the various integration centers in Israel, as well as the initial integration with the Israeli society was very difficult for many of the new immigrants. Name-changing also caused a symbolic break with the new immigrants' past. The Israeli authorities originally gave many of the new immigrants Hebrew given names, Hebrew names, and required them all to have family names, which did not exist in the Ethiopian society. These name-changes created a two-tier system, in which old and new names were used by the new immigrants. The immersion with the Hebrew language was not easy for the new immigrants, and the majority of the new immigrants never managed to master the language, even after living many years in Israel, resulting in a strong social marginalization. Finally, the questioning of their traditional religious practices by the Chief Rabbinate of Israel led to great confusion amongst the new immigrants.
Involvement in politics
The Atid Ehad party, now repurposed as an unrelated "shelf party", saw itself as the political representative of the community, though other parties include Ethiopian members. In 2006, Shas, a party representing Haredi Jews of Sephardic and Middle Eastern background, included an Ethiopian rabbi from Beersheba in its list for the Knesset, in a conscious attempt to represent diverse geographic and ethnic groups. Shas was not the only party attempting to appeal to the Ethiopian vote. Herut - The National Movement and Kadima both had Ethiopians on their lists. Shlomo Mula, head of the Jewish Agency's Ethiopian absorption department, was ranked 33rd on Kadima's list,[35] and Avraham was number three on Herut's list.[citation needed]
In 2012, Israel appointed the country's first Ethiopian-born ambassador, Beylanesh Zevadia. According to the foreign minister of Israel, this represents an important milestone in fighting racism and prejudice.[36] This was followed in 2020 by the appointment of Pnina Tamano-Shata to the post of Minister of Aliyah and Integration in the 35th Israeli government, as the first Ethiopian-born government minister.[37]
Language
The main language used for communication among Israeli citizens and amongst the Ethiopian Beta Israel in Israel is Modern Hebrew. The majority of the Beta Israel immigrants continue to speak in Amharic (primarily) and Tigrinya at home with their family members and friends. The Amharic language and the Tigrinya language are written in the Ge'ez script, originally developed for the Ge'ez language used in Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church.[citation needed]
Historically, Ethiopian Jews had spoken Agaw languages such as Qwara (nearly extinct) and Kayla (extinct).[38][39]
Relations with Ethiopia
Although some non-Jewish Ethiopians expressed bitterness towards the Beta Israel emigration out of Ethiopia,[40] the Ethiopian Jews have close ties with Ethiopian people and tradition. Achievements by the Ethiopian Jews like Hagit Yaso winning the Kokhav Nolad creates a sense of pride in Ethiopia.[citation needed] The Ethiopian government is also an important ally of Israel on the international stage. Israel often sends expert assistance for development projects in Ethiopia. Strategically, Israel "has always aspired to protect itself by means of a non-Arab belt that has included at various times Iran, Turkey, and Ethiopia".[41]
Demography
The following is a list of the most significant Beta Israel population centers in Israel, as of 2006:[42]
| Rank | City | Total population |
Beta Israel population |
% of City Pop |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Netanya | 173,000 | 10,200 | 5.9 |
| 2 | Beersheba | 185,443 | 6,216 | 3.4 |
| 3 | Ashdod | 204,153 | 6,191 | 3.0 |
| 4 | Rehovot | 104,545 | 6,179 | 5.9 |
| 5 | Haifa | 266,280 | 5,484 | 2.1 |
| 6 | Ashkelon | 107,759 | 5,132 | 4.8 |
| 7 | Rishon LeZion | 222,041 | 5,004 | 2.3 |
| 8 | Hadera | 76,332 | 4,828 | 6.3 |
| 9 | Jerusalem | 733,329 | 4,526 | 0.6 |
| 10 | Petah Tikva | 184,196 | 4,041 | 2.2 |
| 11 | Kiryat Malakhi | 19,519 | 3,372 | 17.3 |
| 12 | Ramla | 64,172 | 3,297 | 5.1 |
| 13 | Lod | 66,776 | 3,176 | 4.8 |
| 14 | Afula | 39,274 | 3,123 | 8.0 |
| 15 | Kiryat Gat | 47,794 | 3,062 | 6.4 |
| 16 | Beit Shemesh | 69,482 | 2,470 | 3.6 |
| 17 | Yavne | 31,884 | 2,102 | 6.6 |
| 18 | Kiryat Yam | 37,201 | 1,672 | 4.5 |
| 19 | Bat Yam | 129,437 | 1,502 | 1.2 |
| 20 | Safed | 28,094 | 1,439 | 5.1 |
| 21 | Gedera | 15,462 | 1,380 | 8.9 |
| 22 | Pardes Hanna-Karkur | 29,835 | 1,333 | 4.5 |
| 23 | Netivot | 24,919 | 1,217 | 4.9 |
| 24 | Be'er Ya'akov | 9,356 | 1,039 | 11.1 |
| 25 | Ness Ziona | 30,951 | 986 | 3.2 |
| 26 | Tel Aviv | 384,399 | 970 | 0.3 |
| 27 | Or Yehuda | 31,255 | 903 | 2.9 |
| 28 | Migdal HaEmek | 24,705 | 882 | 3.6 |
| 29 | Holon | 167,080 | 825 | 0.5 |
| 30 | Yokneam Illit | 18,453 | 772 | 4.2 |
| 31 | Kiryat Motzkin | 39,707 | 769 | 1.9 |
| 32 | Kiryat Ekron | 9,900 | 735 | 7.4 |
| 34 | Karmiel | 44,108 | 667 | 1.5 |
| 35 | Kfar Saba | 81,265 | 665 | 0.8 |
| 36 | Tirat Carmel | 18,734 | 635 | 3.4 |
| 37 | Arad | 23,323 | 602 | 2.6 |
| 38 | Ofakim | 24,447 | 598 | 2.4 |
| 39 | Nazareth Illit | 43,577 | 596 | 1.4 |
| 40 | Kiryat Bialik | 36,497 | 524 | 1.4 |
| 41 | Sderot | 19,841 | 522 | 2.6 |
| 42 | Ma'ale Adumim | 31,754 | 506 | 1.6 |
| 43 | Gan Yavne | 15,826 | 501 | 3.2 |
| 44 | Tiberias | 39,996 | 483 | 1.2 |
| 45 | Bnei Brak | 147,940 | 461 | 0.3 |
| 46 | Rosh HaAyin | 37,453 | 424 | 1.1 |
| 47 | Kfar Yona | 14,118 | 413 | 2.9 |
| 48 | Ra'anana | 72,832 | 385 | 0.5 |
| 49 | Kiryat Ata | 49,466 | 350 | 0.7 |
| 50 | Eilat | 46,349 | 331 | 0.7 |
| 51 | Nahariya | 50,439 | 309 | 0.6 |
| 52 | Herzliya | 84,129 | 271 | 0.3 |
| 53 | Beit She'an | 16,432 | 230 | 1.4 |
| 54 | Hod HaSharon | 44,567 | 210 | 0.5 |
| 55 | Yehud-Monosson | 25,464 | 172 | 0.7 |
| 56 | Nesher | 21,246 | 166 | 0.8 |
| 57 | Even Yehuda | 9,711 | 163 | 1.7 |
| 58 | Ofra | 2,531 | 131 | 5.2 |
| 59 | Kedumim | 3,208 | 104 | 3.2 |
| 60 | Ramat Gan | 129,658 | 101 | 0.1 |
The city of Kiryat Malakhi has a large concentration of Ethiopian Beta Israel, with 17.3% of the town’s population being members of the Beta Israel as of 2006. This proportion would slightly decline to 16% by 2019.[43][44] Southern towns, including Qiryat Gat, Kiryat Malakhi, Be'er Sheva, Yavne, Ashkelon, Rehovot, Kiryat Ekron, and Gedera have significant Ethiopian Jewish populations.[45]
Table - The Population of Ethiopian Origin at the End of 2022, in Main Localities
The following is a list of the most significant Beta Israel population centers in Israel in localities above 2,000 people, as of 2022, which account for 77.5% of the group's population.[9]
| Locality | Total population (thousands)[46] | Total Population of Ethiopian origin (thousands) | Population of Ethiopian origin out of total population (%) |
| National Total | 9,662.0 | 168.8 | 1.7 |
| Netanya | 233.1 | 12.2 | 5.2 |
| Be’er Sheva | 214.2 | 10.3 | 4.8 |
| Rishon LeZiyyon | 260.5 | 9.6 | 3.7 |
| Ashqelon | 153.1 | 9.0 | 5.9 |
| Petah Tiqwa | 255.4 | 8.9 | 3.5 |
| Rehovot | 150.7 | 7.7 | 5.1 |
| Ashdod | 226.8 | 7.5 | 3.3 |
| Qiryat Gat | 64.4 | 7.5 | Zdroj:https://en.wikipedia.org?pojem=Ethiopian_Jews_in_Israel