This glossary of engineering terms is a list of definitions about the major concepts of engineering. Please see the bottom of the page for glossaries of specific fields of engineering.

A

Absolute electrode potential

In electrochemistry, according to an IUPAC definition,^[1] is the electrode potential of a metal measured with respect to a universal reference system (without any additional metal–solution interface).

Absolute pressure

is zero-referenced against a perfect vacuum, using an absolute scale, so it is equal to gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure.

Absolute zero

The lower limit of the thermodynamic temperature scale, a state at which the enthalpy and entropy of a cooled ideal gas reach their minimum value, taken as 0. Absolute zero is the point at which the fundamental particles of nature have minimal vibrational motion, retaining only quantum mechanical, zero-point energy-induced particle motion. The theoretical temperature is determined by extrapolating the ideal gas law; by international agreement, absolute zero is taken as −273.15° on the Celsius scale (International System of Units),^[2][3] which equals −459.67° on the Fahrenheit scale (United States customary units or Imperial units).^[4] The corresponding Kelvin and Rankine temperature scales set their zero points at absolute zero by definition.

Absorbance

Absorbance or decadic absorbance is the common logarithm of the ratio of incident to transmitted radiant power through a material, and spectral absorbance or spectral decadic absorbance is the common logarithm of the ratio of incident to transmitted spectral radiant power through a material.^[5]

AC power

Electric power delivered by alternating current; common household power is AC.

Acceleration

The rate at which the velocity of a body changes with time, and the direction in which that change is acting.

Acid

A molecule or ion capable of donating a hydron (proton or hydrogen ion H⁺), or, alternatively, capable of forming a covalent bond with an electron pair (a Lewis acid).^[6]

Acid–base reaction

A chemical reaction that occurs between an acid and a base, which can be used to determine pH.

Acid strength

In strong acids, most of the molecules give up a hydrogen ion and become ionized.

Acoustics

The scientific study of sound.

Activated sludge

A type of wastewater treatment process for treating sewage or industrial wastewaters using aeration and a biological floc composed of bacteria and protozoa.

Activated sludge model

A generic name for a group of mathematical methods to model activated sludge systems.

Active transport

In cellular biology, active transport is the movement of molecules across a membrane from a region of their lower concentration to a region of their higher concentration—against the concentration gradient. Active transport requires cellular energy to achieve this movement. There are two types of active transport: primary active transport that uses ATP, and secondary active transport that uses an electrochemical gradient. An example of active transport in human physiology is the uptake of glucose in the intestines.

Actuator

A device that accepts 2 inputs (control signal, energy source) and outputs kinetic energy in the form of physical movement (linear, rotary, or oscillatory). The control signal input specifies which motion should be taken. The energy source input is typically either an electric current, hydraulic pressure, or pneumatic pressure. An actuator can be the final element of a control loop

Adenosine triphosphate

A complex organic chemical that provides energy to drive many processes in living cells, e.g. muscle contraction, nerve impulse propagation, chemical synthesis. Found in all forms of life, ATP is often referred to as the "molecular unit of currency" of intracellular energy transfer.^[7]

Adhesion

The tendency of dissimilar particles or surfaces to cling to one another (cohesion refers to the tendency of similar or identical particles/surfaces to cling to one another).

Adiabatic process

A process where no heat energy is lost to outside space.

Adiabatic wall

A barrier through which heat energy cannot pass.

Aerobic digestion

A process in sewage treatment designed to reduce the volume of sewage sludge and make it suitable^[8] for subsequent use.^[9]

Aerodynamics

The study of the motion of air, particularly its interaction with a solid object, such as an airplane wing. It is a sub-field of fluid dynamics and gas dynamics, and many aspects of aerodynamics theory are common to these fields.

Aerospace engineering

is the primary field of engineering concerned with the development of aircraft and spacecraft.^[10] It has two major and overlapping branches: Aeronautical engineering and Astronautical Engineering. Avionics engineering is similar, but deals with the electronics side of aerospace engineering.

Afocal system

An optical system that produces no net convergence or divergence of the beam, i.e. has an infinite effective focal length.^[11]

Agricultural engineering

The profession of designing machinery, processes, and systems for use in agriculture.

Albedo

A measure of the fraction of light reflected from an astronomical body or other object.

Alkane

An alkane, or paraffin (a historical name that also has other meanings), is an acyclic saturated hydrocarbon. In other words, an alkane consists of hydrogen and carbon atoms arranged in a tree structure in which all the carbon–carbon bonds are single.^[12]

Alkene

An unsaturated hydrocarbon that contains at least one carbon–carbon double bond.^[13] The words alkene and olefin are often used interchangeably.

Alkyne

is an unsaturated hydrocarbon containing at least one carbon—carbon triple bond.^[14] The simplest acyclic alkynes with only one triple bond and no other functional groups form a homologous series with the general chemical formula C_nH_2n−2.

Alloy

is a combination of metals or of a metal and another element. Alloys are defined by a metallic bonding character.^[15]

Alpha particle

Alpha particles consist of two protons and two neutrons bound together into a particle identical to a helium-4 nucleus. They are generally produced in the process of alpha decay, but may also be produced in other ways. Alpha particles are named after the first letter in the Greek alphabet, α.

Alternating current

Electrical current that regularly reverses direction.

Alternative hypothesis

In statistical hypothesis testing, the alternative hypothesis (or maintained hypothesis or research hypothesis) and the null hypothesis are the two rival hypotheses which are compared by a statistical hypothesis test. In the domain of science two rival hypotheses can be compared by explanatory power and predictive power.

Ammeter

An instrument that measures current.

Amino acids

are organic compounds containing amine (–NH₂) and carboxyl (–COOH) functional groups, along with a side chain (R group) specific to each amino acid.^[16][17][18] The key elements of an amino acid are carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), and nitrogen (N), although other elements are found in the side chains of certain amino acids. About 500 naturally occurring amino acids are known (though only 20 appear in the genetic code) and can be classified in many ways.^[19]

Amorphous solid

An amorphous (from the Greek a, without, morphé, shape, form) or non-crystalline solid is a solid that lacks the long-range order that is characteristic of a crystal.

Ampere

The SI unit of current flow, one coulomb per second.

Amphoterism

In chemistry, an amphoteric compound is a molecule or ion that can react both as an acid as well as a base.^[20] Many metals (such as copper, zinc, tin, lead, aluminium, and beryllium) form amphoteric oxides or hydroxides. Amphoterism depends on the oxidation states of the oxide. Al₂O₃ is an example of an amphoteric oxide.

Amplifier

A device that replicates a signal with increased power.

Amplitude

The amplitude of a periodic variable is a measure of its change over a single period (such as time or spatial period). There are various definitions of amplitude, which are all functions of the magnitude of the difference between the variable's extreme values. In older texts the phase is sometimes called the amplitude.^[21]

Anaerobic digestion

is a collection of processes by which microorganisms break down biodegradable material in the absence of oxygen.^[22] The process is used for industrial or domestic purposes to manage waste or to produce fuels. Much of the fermentation used industrially to produce food and drink products, as well as home fermentation, uses anaerobic digestion.

Angular acceleration

is the rate of change of angular velocity. In three dimensions, it is a pseudovector. In SI units, it is measured in radians per second squared (rad/s²), and is usually denoted by the Greek letter alpha (α).^[23]

Angular momentum

In physics, angular momentum (rarely, moment of momentum or rotational momentum) is the rotational equivalent of linear momentum. It is an important quantity in physics because it is a conserved quantity—the total angular momentum of a system remains constant unless acted on by an external torque.

Angular velocity

In physics, the angular velocity of a particle is the rate at which it rotates around a chosen center point: that is, the time rate of change of its angular displacement relative to the origin (i.e. in layman's terms: how quickly an object goes around something over a period of time - e.g. how fast the earth orbits the sun). It is measured in angle per unit time, radians per second in SI units, and is usually represented by the symbol omega (ω, sometimes Ω). By convention, positive angular velocity indicates counter-clockwise rotation, while negative is clockwise.

Anion

is an ion with more electrons than protons, giving it a net negative charge (since electrons are negatively charged and protons are positively charged).^[24]

Annealing (metallurgy)

A heat treatment process that relieves internal stresses.

Annihilation

In particle physics, annihilation is the process that occurs when a subatomic particle collides with its respective antiparticle to produce other particles, such as an electron colliding with a positron to produce two photons.^[25] The total energy and momentum of the initial pair are conserved in the process and distributed among a set of other particles in the final state. Antiparticles have exactly opposite additive quantum numbers from particles, so the sums of all quantum numbers of such an original pair are zero. Hence, any set of particles may be produced whose total quantum numbers are also zero as long as conservation of energy and conservation of momentum are obeyed.^[26]

Anode

The electrode at which current enters a device such as an electrochemical cell or vacuum tube.

ANSI

The American National Standards Institute is a private non-profit organization that oversees the development of voluntary consensus standards for products, services, processes, systems, and personnel in the United States.^[27] The organization also coordinates U.S. standards with international standards so that American products can be used worldwide.

Anti-gravity

Anti-gravity (also known as non-gravitational field) is a theory of creating a place or object that is free from the force of gravity. It does not refer to the lack of weight under gravity experienced in free fall or orbit, or to balancing the force of gravity with some other force, such as electromagnetism or aerodynamic lift.

Applied engineering

is the field concerned with the application of management, design, and technical skills for the design and integration of systems, the execution of new product designs, the improvement of manufacturing processes, and the management and direction of physical and/or technical functions of a firm or organization. Applied-engineering degreed programs typically include instruction in basic engineering principles, project management, industrial processes, production and operations management, systems integration and control, quality control, and statistics.^[28]

Applied mathematics

Mathematics used for solutions of practical problems, as opposed to pure mathematics.

Arc length

Arc length is the distance between two points along a section of a curve. Determining the length of an irregular arc segment is also called rectification of a curve. The advent of infinitesimal calculus led to a general formula that provides closed-form solutions in some cases.

Archimedes' principle

states that the upward buoyant force that is exerted on a body immersed in a fluid, whether fully or partially submerged, is equal to the weight of the fluid that the body displaces and acts in the upward direction at the center of mass of the displaced fluid.^[29] Archimedes' principle is a law of physics fundamental to fluid mechanics. It was formulated by Archimedes of Syracuse^[30]

Area moment of inertia

The 2nd moment of area, also known as moment of inertia of plane area, area moment of inertia, or second area moment, is a geometrical property of an area which reflects how its points are distributed with regard to an arbitrary axis. The second moment of area is typically denoted with either an ${\displaystyle I}$ for an axis that lies in the plane or with a ${\displaystyle J}$ for an axis perpendicular to the plane. In both cases, it is calculated with a multiple integral over the object in question. Its dimension is L (length) to the fourth power. Its unit of dimension when working with the International System of Units is meters to the fourth power, m⁴.

Arithmetic mean

In mathematics and statistics, the arithmetic mean or simply the mean or average when the context is clear, is the sum of a collection of numbers divided by the number of numbers in the collection.^[31]

Arithmetic progression

In mathematics, an arithmetic progression (AP) or arithmetic sequence is a sequence of numbers such that the difference between the consecutive terms is constant. Difference here means the second minus the first. For instance, the sequence 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, . . . is an arithmetic progression with common difference of 2.

Aromatic hydrocarbon

An aromatic hydrocarbon or arene^[32] (or sometimes aryl hydrocarbon)^[33] is a hydrocarbon with sigma bonds and delocalized pi electrons between carbon atoms forming a circle. In contrast, aliphatic hydrocarbons lack this delocalization. The term aromatic was assigned before the physical mechanism determining aromaticity was discovered; the term was coined as such simply because many of the compounds have a sweet or pleasant odour. The configuration of six carbon atoms in aromatic compounds is known as a benzene ring, after the simplest possible such hydrocarbon, benzene. Aromatic hydrocarbons can be monocyclic (MAH) or polycyclic (PAH).

Arrhenius equation

The Arrhenius equation is a formula for the temperature dependence of reaction rates. The equation was proposed by Svante Arrhenius in 1889, based on the work of Dutch chemist Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff who had noted in 1884 that Van 't Hoff's equation for the temperature dependence of equilibrium constants suggests such a formula for the rates of both forward and reverse reactions. This equation has a vast and important application in determining rate of chemical reactions and for calculation of energy of activation. Arrhenius provided a physical justification and interpretation for the formula.^[34][35][36] Currently, it is best seen as an empirical relationship.^[37]: 188 It can be used to model the temperature variation of diffusion coefficients, population of crystal vacancies, creep rates, and many other thermally-induced processes/reactions. The Eyring equation, developed in 1935, also expresses the relationship between rate and energy.

Artificial intelligence

(AI), is intelligence demonstrated by machines, unlike the natural intelligence displayed by humans and animals. Leading AI textbooks define the field as the study of "intelligent agents": any device that perceives its environment and takes actions that maximize its chance of successfully achieving its goals.^[40] Colloquially, the term "artificial intelligence" is often used to describe machines (or computers) that mimic "cognitive" functions that humans associate with the human mind, such as "learning" and "problem solving".^[41]

Assembly language

A computer programming language where most statements correspond to one or a few machine op-codes.

Atomic orbital

In atomic theory and quantum mechanics, an atomic orbital is a mathematical function that describes the wave-like behavior of either one electron or a pair of electrons in an atom.^[42] This function can be used to calculate the probability of finding any electron of an atom in any specific region around the atom's nucleus. The term atomic orbital may also refer to the physical region or space where the electron can be calculated to be present, as defined by the particular mathematical form of the orbital.^[43]

Atomic packing factor

The percentage of the volume filled with atomic mass in a crystal formation.

Audio frequency

An audio frequency (abbreviation: AF), or audible frequency is characterized as a periodic vibration whose frequency is audible to the average human. The SI unit of audio frequency is the hertz (Hz). It is the property of sound that most determines pitch.^[44]

Austenitization

Austenitization means to heat iron, iron-based metal, or steel to a temperature at which it changes crystal structure from ferrite to austenite.^[45] The more open structure of the austenite is then able to absorb carbon from the iron-carbides in carbon steel. An incomplete initial austenitization can leave undissolved carbides in the matrix.^[46] For some irons, iron-based metals, and steels, the presence of carbides may occur during the austenitization step. The term commonly used for this is two-phase austenitization.^[47]

Automation

is the technology by which a process or procedure is performed with minimum human assistance.^[48] Automation^[49] or automatic control is the use of various control systems for operating equipment such as machinery, processes in factories, boilers, and heat-treating ovens, switching on telephone networks, steering and stabilization of ships, aircraft and other applications and vehicles with minimal or reduced human intervention. Some processes have been completely automated.

Autonomous vehicle

A vehicle capable of driving from one point to another without input from a human operator.

Azimuthal quantum number

The azimuthal quantum number is a quantum number for an atomic orbital that determines its orbital angular momentum and describes the shape of the orbital. The azimuthal quantum number is the second of a set of quantum numbers which describe the unique quantum state of an electron (the others being the principal quantum number, following spectroscopic notation, the magnetic quantum number, and the spin quantum number). It is also known as the orbital angular momentum quantum number, orbital quantum number or second quantum number, and is symbolized as ℓ.

B

Barometer

A device for measuring pressure.

Battery

Electrochemical cells that transform chemical energy into electricity.

Base

In chemistry, bases are substances that, in aqueous solution, release hydroxide (OH⁻) ions, are slippery to the touch, can taste bitter if an alkali,^[50] change the color of indicators (e.g., turn red litmus paper blue), react with acids to form salts, promote certain chemical reactions (base catalysis), accept protons from any proton donor, and/or contain completely or partially displaceable OH⁻ ions.

Baud

Rate at which data is transferred in symbols/second; a symbol may represent one or more bits.

Beam

A structural element whose length is significantly greater than its width or height.

Beer–Lambert law

The Beer–Lambert law, also known as Beer's law, the Lambert–Beer law, or the Beer–Lambert–Bouguer law relates the attenuation of light to the properties of the material through which the light is travelling. The law is commonly applied to chemical analysis measurements and used in understanding attenuation in physical optics, for photons, neutrons, or rarefied gases. In mathematical physics, this law arises as a solution of the BGK equation.

Belt

A closed loop of flexible material used to transmit mechanical power from one pulley to another.

Belt friction

Describes the friction forces between a belt and a surface, such as a belt wrapped around a bollard. When one end of the belt is being pulled only part of this force is transmitted to the other end wrapped about a surface. The friction force increases with the amount of wrap about a surface and makes it so the tension in the belt can be different at both ends of the belt. Belt friction can be modeled by the Belt friction equation.^[51]

Bending

In applied mechanics, bending (also known as flexure) characterizes the behavior of a slender structural element subjected to an external load applied perpendicularly to a longitudinal axis of the element. The structural element is assumed to be such that at least one of its dimensions is a small fraction, typically 1/10 or less, of the other two.^[52]

Bending moment

In solid mechanics, a bending moment is the reaction induced in a structural element when an external force or moment is applied to the element, causing the element to bend.^{[53] [54]} The most common or simplest structural element subjected to bending moments is the beam.

Benefit–cost analysis

Cost–benefit analysis (CBA), sometimes called benefit costs analysis (BCA), is a systematic approach to estimating the strengths and weaknesses of alternatives (for example in transactions, activities, functional business requirements); it is used to determine options that provide the best approach to achieve benefits while preserving savings.^[55] It may be used to compare potential (or completed) courses of actions; or estimate (or evaluate) the value against costs of a single decision, project, or policy.

Bernoulli differential equation

In mathematics, an ordinary differential equation of the form:

${\displaystyle y'+P(x)y=Q(x)y^{n}\,}$

is called a Bernoulli differential equation where ${\displaystyle n}$ is any real number and ${\displaystyle n\neq 0}$ and ${\displaystyle n\neq 1}$.^[56] It is named after Jacob Bernoulli who discussed it in 1695. Bernoulli equations are special because they are nonlinear differential equations with known exact solutions. A famous special case of the Bernoulli equation is the logistic differential equation.

Bernoulli's equation

An equation for relating several measurements within a fluid flow, such as velocity, pressure, and potential energy.

Bernoulli's principle

In fluid dynamics, Bernoulli's principle states that an increase in the speed of a fluid occurs simultaneously with a decrease in pressure or a decrease in the fluid's potential energy.^{[57]: Ch.3 [58]: 156–164, § 3.5} The principle is named after Daniel Bernoulli who published it in his book Hydrodynamica in 1738.^[59] Although Bernoulli deduced that pressure decreases when the flow speed increases, it was Leonhard Euler who derived Bernoulli's equation in its usual form in 1752.^[60][61] The principle is only applicable for isentropic flows: when the effects of irreversible processes (like turbulence) and non-adiabatic processes (e.g. heat radiation) are small and can be neglected.

Beta particle

also called beta ray or beta radiation (symbol β), is a high-energy, high-speed electron or positron emitted by the radioactive decay of an atomic nucleus during the process of beta decay. There are two forms of beta decay, β⁻ decay and β⁺ decay, which produce electrons and positrons respectively.^[62]

Binomial distribution

In probability theory and statistics, the binomial distribution with parameters n and p is the discrete probability distribution of the number of successes in a sequence of n independent experiments, each asking a yes–no question, and each with its own boolean-valued outcome: a random variable containing a single bit of information: success/yes/true/one (with probability p) or failure/no/false/zero (with probability q=1 − p). A single success-failure experiment is also called a Bernoulli trial or Bernoulli experiment and a sequence of outcomes is called a Bernoulli process; for a single trial, i.e., n=1, the binomial distribution is a Bernoulli distribution. The binomial distribution is the basis for the popular binomial test of statistical significance.

Biocatalysis

Biocatalysis refers to the use of living (biological) systems or their parts to speed up (catalyze) chemical reactions. In biocatalytic processes, natural catalysts, such as enzymes, perform chemical transformations on organic compounds. Both enzymes that have been more or less isolated and enzymes still residing inside living cells are employed for this task.^[63][64][65] The modern usage of biotechnologically produced and possibly modified enzymes for organic synthesis is termed chemoenzymatic synthesis; the reactions performed are chemoenzymatic reactions.

Biomedical engineering

Biomedical engineering (BME) or medical engineering is the application of engineering principles and design concepts to medicine and biology for healthcare purposes (e.g. diagnostic or therapeutic). This field seeks to close the gap between engineering and medicine, combining the design and problem solving skills of engineering with medical biological sciences to advance health care treatment, including diagnosis, monitoring, and therapy.^[66]

Biomimetic

Biomimetics or biomimicry is the imitation of the models, systems, and elements of nature for the purpose of solving complex human problems.^[67]

Bionics

The application of biological methods to engineering systems.

Biophysics

is an interdisciplinary science that applies approaches and methods traditionally used in physics to study biological phenomena.^[68][69][70] Biophysics covers all scales of biological organization, from molecular to organismic and populations. Biophysical research shares significant overlap with biochemistry, molecular biology, physical chemistry, physiology, nanotechnology, bioengineering, computational biology, biomechanics and systems biology.

Biot number

The Biot number (Bi) is a dimensionless quantity used in heat transfer calculations. It is named after the eighteenth century French physicist Jean-Baptiste Biot (1774–1862), and gives a simple index of the ratio of the heat transfer resistances inside of and at the surface of a body. This ratio determines whether or not the temperatures inside a body will vary significantly in space, while the body heats or cools over time, from a thermal gradient applied to its surface.

Block and tackle

A system of pulleys and a rope threaded between them, used to lift or pull heavy loads.

Body force

is a force that acts throughout the volume of a body. Forces due to gravity, electric fields and magnetic fields are examples of body forces. Body forces contrast with contact forces or surface forces which are exerted to the surface of an object.

Boiler

is a closed vessel in which fluid (generally water) is heated. The fluid does not necessarily boil. The heated or vaporized fluid exits the boiler for use in various processes or heating applications,^[71][72] including water heating, central heating, boiler-based power generation, cooking, and sanitation.

Boiling point

The boiling point of a substance is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid equals the pressure surrounding the liquid^[73][74] and the liquid changes into a vapor.

Boiling-point elevation

Boiling-point elevation describes the phenomenon that the boiling point of a liquid (a solvent) will be higher when another compound is added, meaning that a solution has a higher boiling point than a pure solvent. This happens whenever a non-volatile solute, such as a salt, is added to a pure solvent, such as water. The boiling point can be measured accurately using an ebullioscope.

Boltzmann constant

The Boltzmann constant (k_B or k) is a physical constant relating the average kinetic energy of particles in a gas with the temperature of the gas^[75] and occurs in Planck's law of black-body radiation and in Boltzmann's entropy formula. It was introduced by Max Planck, but named after Ludwig Boltzmann. It is the gas constant R divided by the Avogadro constant N_A:

${\displaystyle k={\frac {R}{N_{\text{A}}}}.}$.

The bulk modulus (${\displaystyle K}$ or ${\displaystyle B}$) of a substance is a measure of how resistant to compression that substance is. It is defined as the ratio of the infinitesimal pressure increase to the resulting relative decrease of the volume.^[95] Other moduli describe the material's response (strain) to other kinds of stress: the shear modulus describes the response to shear, and Young's modulus describes the response to linear stress. For a fluid, only the bulk modulus is meaningful. For a complex anisotropic solid such as wood or paper, these three moduli do not contain enough information to describe its behaviour, and one must use the full generalized Hooke's law.

C

Calculus

The mathematics of change.

Capacitance

The ability of a body to store electrical charge.

Capacitive reactance

The impedance of a capacitor in an alternating current circuit, the opposition to current flow.

Capacitor

An electrical component that stores energy in an electric field.

Capillary action

Capillary action (sometimes capillarity, capillary motion, capillary effect, or wicking) is the ability of a liquid to flow in narrow spaces without the assistance of, or even in opposition to, external forces like gravity. The effect can be seen in the drawing up of liquids between the hairs of a paintbrush, in a thin tube, in porous materials such as paper and plaster, in some non-porous materials such as sand and liquefied carbon fiber, or in a cell. It occurs because of intermolecular forces between the liquid and surrounding solid surfaces. If the diameter of the tube is sufficiently small, then the combination of surface tension (which is caused by cohesion within the liquid) and adhesive forces between the liquid and container wall act to propel the liquid.

Carbonate

Any mineral with bound carbon dioxide.

Carnot cycle

A hypothetical thermodynamic cycle for a heat engine; no thermodynamic cycle can be more efficient than a Carnot cycle operating between the same two temperature limits.

Cartesian coordinates

Coordinates within a rectangular Cartesian plane.

Castigliano's method

Named for Carlo Alberto Castigliano, is a method for determining the displacements of a linear-elastic system based on the partial derivatives of the energy. He is known for his two theorems. The basic concept is that a change in energy is equal to the causing force times the resulting displacement. Therefore, the causing force is equal to the change in energy divided by the resulting displacement. Alternatively, the resulting displacement is equal to the change in energy divided by the causing force. Partial derivatives are needed to relate causing forces and resulting displacements to the change in energy.

Casting

Forming of an object by pouring molten metal (or other substances) into a mold.

Cathode

The terminal of a device by which current exits.

Cathode ray

The stream of electrons emitted from a heated negative electrode and attracted to a positive electrode.

Cell membrane

The cell membrane (also known as the plasma membrane or cytoplasmic membrane, and historically referred to as the plasmalemma) is a biological membrane that separates the interior of all cells from the outside environment (the extracellular space) which protects the cell from its environment^[96][97] consisting of a lipid bilayer with embedded proteins.

Cell nucleus

In cell biology, the nucleus (pl. nuclei; from Latin nucleus or nuculeus, meaning 'kernel' or 'seed') is a membrane-enclosed organelle found in eukaryotic cells. Eukaryotes usually have a single nucleus, but a few cell types, such as mammalian red blood cells, have no nuclei, and a few others including osteoclasts have many.

Cell theory

In biology, cell theory is the historic scientific theory, now universally accepted, that living organisms are made up of cells, that they are the basic structural/organizational unit of all organisms, and that all cells come from pre-existing cells. Cells are the basic unit of structure in all organisms and also the basic unit of reproduction.

Center of gravity

The center of mass of an object, its balance point.

Center of mass

The weighted center of an object; a force applied through the center of mass will not cause rotation of the object.

Center of pressure

is the point where the total sum of a pressure field acts on a body, causing a force to act through that point. The total force vector acting at the center of pressure is the value of the integrated vectorial pressure field. The resultant force and center of pressure location produce equivalent force and moment on the body as the original pressure field.

Central force motion

.

Central limit theorem

In probability theory, the central limit theorem (CLT) establishes that, in some situations, when independent random variables are added, their properly normalized sum tends toward a normal distribution (informally a bell curve) even if the original variables themselves are not normally distributed. The theorem is a key concept in probability theory because it implies that probabilistic and statistical methods that work for normal distributions can be applicable to many problems involving other types of distributions.

Central processing unit

A central processing unit (CPU) is the electronic circuitry within a computer that carries out the instructions of a computer program by performing the basic arithmetic, logic, controlling and input/output (I/O) operations specified by the instructions. The computer industry has used the term central processing unit at least since the early 1960s.^[98] Traditionally, the term CPU refers to a processor, more specifically to its processing unit and control unit (CU), distinguishing these core elements of a computer from external components such as main memory and I/O circuitry.^[99]

Centripetal acceleration

.

Centripetal force

A force acting against rotational acceleration.

Centroid

The average point of volume for an object.

Centrosome

In cell biology, the centrosome is an organelle that serves as the main microtubule organizing center (MTOC) of the animal cell as well as a regulator of cell-cycle progression. The centrosome is thought to have evolved only in the metazoan lineage of eukaryotic cells.^[100] Fungi and plants lack centrosomes and therefore use structures other than MTOCs to organize their microtubules.^{[101] [102]}

Chain reaction

is a sequence of reactions where a reactive product or by-product causes additional reactions to take place. In a chain reaction, positive feedback leads to a self-amplifying chain of events.

Change of base rule

.

Charles's law

Charles's law (also known as the law of volumes) is an experimental gas law that describes how gases tend to expand when heated. A modern statement of Charles's law is: When the pressure on a sample of a dry gas is held constant, the Kelvin temperature and the volume will be in direct proportion.^[103]

Chemical bond

is a lasting attraction between atoms, ions or molecules that enables the formation of chemical compounds. The bond may result from the electrostatic force of attraction between oppositely charged ions as in ionic bonds or through the sharing of electrons as in covalent bonds. The strength of chemical bonds varies considerably; there are "strong bonds" or "primary bonds" such as covalent, ionic and metallic bonds, and "weak bonds" or "secondary bonds" such as dipole–dipole interactions, the London dispersion force and hydrogen bonding.

Chemical compound

is a chemical substance composed of many identical molecules (or molecular entities) composed of atoms from more than one element held together by chemical bonds. A chemical element bonded to an identical chemical element is not a chemical compound since only one element, not two different elements, is involved.

Chemical equilibrium

In a chemical reaction, chemical equilibrium is the state in which both reactants and products are present in concentrations which have no further tendency to change with time, so that there is no observable change in the properties of the system.^[104] Usually, this state results when the forward reaction proceeds at the same rate as the reverse reaction. The reaction rates of the forward and backward reactions are generally not zero, but equal. Thus, there are no net changes in the concentrations of the reactants and products. Such a state is known as dynamic equilibrium.^[105][106]

Chemical kinetics

Chemical kinetics, also known as reaction kinetics, is the study of rates of chemical processes. Chemical kinetics includes investigations of how different experimental conditions can influence the speed of a chemical reaction and yield information about the reaction's mechanism and transition states, as well as the construction of mathematical models that can describe the characteristics of a chemical reaction.

Chemical reaction

A chemical reaction is a process that leads to the chemical transformation of one set of chemical substances to another.^[107] Classically, chemical reactions encompass changes that only involve the positions of electrons in the forming and breaking of chemical bonds between atoms, with no change to the nuclei (no change to the elements present), and can often be described by a chemical equation. Nuclear chemistry is a sub-discipline of chemistry that involves the chemical reactions of unstable and radioactive elements where both electronic and nuclear changes can occur.

Chemistry

is the scientific discipline involved with elements and compounds composed of atoms, molecules and ions: their composition, structure, properties, behavior and the changes they undergo during a reaction with other substances.^{[108][109][110][111]}

Chloride

Any chemical compound containing the element chlorine.

Chromate

Chromate salts contain the chromate anion, CrO²⁻
₄. Dichromate salts contain the dichromate anion, Cr
₂O²⁻
₇. They are oxyanions of chromium in the 6+ oxidation state . They are moderately strong oxidizing agents. In an aqueous solution, chromate and dichromate ions can be interconvertible.

Circular motion

In physics, circular motion is a movement of an object along the circumference of a circle or rotation along a circular path. It can be uniform, with constant angular rate of rotation and constant speed, or non-uniform with a changing rate of rotation. The rotation around a fixed axis of a three-dimensional body involves circular motion of its parts. The equations of motion describe the movement of the center of mass of a body.

Civil engineering

The profession that deals with the design and construction of structures, or other fixed works.

Clausius–Clapeyron relation

The Clausius–Clapeyron relation, named after Rudolf Clausius^[112] and Benoît Paul Émile Clapeyron,^[113] is a way of characterizing a discontinuous phase transition between two phases of matter of a single constituent. On a pressure–temperature (P–T) diagram, the line separating the two phases is known as the coexistence curve. The Clausius–Clapeyron relation gives the slope of the tangents to this curve. Mathematically,

${\displaystyle {\frac {\mathrm {d} P}{\mathrm {d} T}}={\frac {L}{T\,\Delta v}}={\frac {\Delta s}{\Delta v}},}$

where ${\displaystyle \mathrm {d} P/\mathrm {d} T}$ is the slope of the tangent to the coexistence curve at any point, ${\displaystyle L}$ is the specific latent heat, ${\displaystyle T}$ is the temperature, ${\displaystyle \Delta v}$ is the specific volume change of the phase transition, and ${\displaystyle \Delta s}$ is the specific entropy change of the phase transition.

Clausius inequality

.

Clausius theorem

The Clausius theorem (1855) states that a system exchanging heat with external reservoirs and undergoing a cyclic process, is one that ultimately returns a system to its original state,

${\displaystyle \oint {\frac {\delta Q}{T_{surr}}}\leq 0,}$

where ${\displaystyle \delta Q}$ is the infinitesimal amount of heat absorbed by the system from the reservoir and ${\displaystyle T_{surr}}$ is the temperature of the external reservoir (surroundings) at a particular instant in time. In the special case of a reversible process, the equality holds.^[114] The reversible case is used to introduce the entropy state function. This is because in a cyclic process the variation of a state function is zero. In words, the Clausius statement states that it is impossible to construct a device whose sole effect is the transfer of heat from a cool reservoir to a hot reservoir.^[115] Equivalently, heat spontaneously flows from a hot body to a cooler one, not the other way around.^[116] The generalized "inequality of Clausius"^[117]

${\displaystyle dS>{\frac {\delta Q}{T_{surr}}}}$

for an infinitesimal change in entropy S applies not only to cyclic processes, but to any process that occurs in a closed system.

Coefficient of performance

The coefficient of performance or COP (sometimes CP or CoP) of a heat pump, refrigerator or air conditioning system is a ratio of useful heating or cooling provided to work required.^[118][119] Higher COPs equate to lower operating costs. The COP usually exceeds 1, especially in heat pumps, because, instead of just converting work to heat (which, if 100% efficient, would be a COP_hp of 1), it pumps additional heat from a heat source to where the heat is required. For complete systems, COP calculations should include energy consumption of all power consuming auxiliaries. COP is highly dependent on operating conditions, especially absolute temperature and relative temperature between sink and system, and is often graphed or averaged against expected conditions.^[120]

Coefficient of variation

In probability theory and statistics, the coefficient of variation (CV), also known as relative standard deviation (RSD), is a standardized measure of dispersion of a probability distribution or frequency distribution. It is often expressed as a percentage, and is defined as the ratio of the standard deviation ${\displaystyle \ \sigma }$ to the mean ${\displaystyle \ \mu }$ (or its absolute value, ${\displaystyle |\mu |}$).

Coherence

In physics, two wave sources are perfectly coherent if they have a constant phase difference and the same frequency, and the same waveform. Coherence is an ideal property of waves that enables stationary (i.e. temporally and spatially constant) interference. It contains several distinct concepts, which are limiting cases that never quite occur in reality but allow an understanding of the physics of waves, and has become a very important concept in quantum physics. More generally, coherence describes all properties of the correlation between physical quantities of a single wave, or between several waves or wave packets.

Cohesion

or cohesive attraction or cohesive force is the action or property of like molecules sticking together, being mutually attractive. It is an intrinsic property of a substance that is caused by the shape and structure of its molecules, which makes the distribution of orbiting electrons irregular when molecules get close to one another, creating electrical attraction that can maintain a microscopic structure such as a water drop. In other words, cohesion allows for surface tension, creating a "solid-like" state upon which light-weight or low-density materials can be placed.

Cold forming

or cold working, any metal-working procedure (such as hammering, rolling, shearing, bending, milling, etc.) carried out below the metal's recrystallization temperature.

Combustion

or burning,^[121] is a high-temperature exothermic redox chemical reaction between a fuel (the reductant) and an oxidant, usually atmospheric oxygen, that produces oxidized, often gaseous products, in a mixture termed as smoke.

Compensation

Is planning for side effects or other unintended issues in a design. In a more simpler term, it is a "counter-procedure" plan on expected side effect performed to produce more efficient and useful results. The design of an invention can itself also be to compensate for some other existing issue or exception.

Compiler

A computer program that translates a high-level language into machine language.

Compressive strength

Compressive strength or compression strength is the capacity of a material or structure to withstand loads tending to reduce size, as opposed to tensile strength, which withstands loads tending to elongate. In other words, compressive strength resists compression (being pushed together), whereas tensile strength resists tension (being pulled apart). In the study of strength of materials, tensile strength, compressive strength, and shear strength can be analyzed independently.

Computational fluid dynamics

The numerical solution of flow equations in practical problems such as aircraft design or hydraulic structures.

Computer

A computer is a device that can be instructed to carry out sequences of arithmetic or logical operations automatically via computer programming. Modern computers have the ability to follow generalized sets of operations, called programs. These programs enable computers to perform an extremely wide range of tasks.

Computer-aided design

Computer-aided design (CAD) is the use of computer systems (or workstations) to aid in the creation, modification, analysis, or optimization of a design.^[122] CAD software is used to increase the productivity of the designer, improve the quality of design, improve communications through documentation, and to create a database for manufacturing.^[123] CAD output is often in the form of electronic files for print, machining, or other manufacturing operations. The term CADD (for computer aided design and drafting) is also used.^[124]

Computer-aided engineering

Computer-aided engineering (CAE) is the broad usage of computer software to aid in engineering analysis tasks. It includes finite element analysis (FEA), computational fluid dynamics (CFD), multibody dynamics (MBD), durability and optimization.

Computer-aided manufacturing

Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) is the use of software to control machine tools and related ones in the manufacturing of workpieces.^{[125][126][127][128][129]} This is not the only definition for CAM, but it is the most common;^[125] CAM may also refer to the use of a computer to assist in all operations of a manufacturing plant, including planning, management, transportation and storage.^[130][131]

Computer engineering

Computer engineering is a discipline that integrates several fields of computer science and electronics engineering required to develop computer hardware and software.^[132]

Computer science

is the theory, experimentation, and engineering that form the basis for the design and use of computers. It involves the study of algorithms that process, store, and communicate digital information. A computer scientist specializes in the theory of computation and the design of computational systems.^[133]

Concave lens

Lenses are classified by the curvature of the two optical surfaces. A lens is biconvex (or double convex, or just convex) if both surfaces are convex. If both surfaces have the same radius of curvature, the lens is equiconvex. A lens with two concave surfaces is biconcave (or just concave). If one of the surfaces is flat, the lens is plano-convex or plano-concave depending on the curvature of the other surface. A lens with one convex and one concave side is convex-concave or meniscus.

Condensed matter physics

is the field of physics that deals with the macroscopic and microscopic physical properties of matter. In particular it is concerned with the "condensed" phases that appear whenever the number of constituents in a system is extremely large and the interactions between the constituents are strong.

Confidence interval

In statistics, a confidence interval or compatibility interval (CI) is a type of interval estimate, computed from the statistics of the observed data, that might contain the true value of an unknown population parameter. The interval has an associated confidence level that, loosely speaking, quantifies the level of confidence that the parameter lies in the interval. More strictly speaking, the confidence level represents the frequency (i.e. the proportion) of possible confidence intervals that contain the true value of the unknown population parameter. In other words, if confidence intervals are constructed using a given confidence level from an infinite number of independent sample statistics, the proportion of those intervals that contain the true value of the parameter will be equal to the confidence level.^{[134][135][136]}

Conjugate acid

A conjugate acid, within the Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory, is a species formed by the reception of a proton (H⁺) by a base—in other words, it is a base with a hydrogen ion added to it. On the other hand, a conjugate base is what is left over after an acid has donated a proton during a chemical reaction. Hence, a conjugate base is a species formed by the removal of a proton from an acid.^[137] Because some acids are capable of releasing multiple protons, the conjugate base of an acid may itself be acidic.

Conjugate base

A conjugate acid, within the Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory, is a species formed by the reception of a proton (H⁺) by a base—in other words, it is a base with a hydrogen ion added to it. On the other hand, a conjugate base is what is left over after an acid has donated a proton during a chemical reaction. Hence, a conjugate base is a species formed by the removal of a proton from an acid.^[137] Because some acids are capable of releasing multiple protons, the conjugate base of an acid may itself be acidic.

Conservation of energy

In physics and chemistry, the law of conservation of energy states that the total energy of an isolated system remains constant; it is said to be conserved over time.^[138] This law means that energy can neither be created nor destroyed; rather, it can only be transformed or transferred from one form to another.

Conservation of mass

The law of conservation of mass or principle of mass conservation states that for any system closed to all transfers of matter and energy, the mass of the system must remain constant over time, as system's mass cannot change, so quantity cannot be added nor removed. Hence, the quantity of mass is conserved over time.

Continuity equation

A continuity equation in physics is an equation that describes the transport of some quantity. It is particularly simple and powerful when applied to a conserved quantity, but it can be generalized to apply to any extensive quantity. Since mass, energy, momentum, electric charge and other natural quantities are conserved under their respective appropriate conditions, a variety of physical phenomena may be described using continuity equations.

Continuum mechanics

is a branch of mechanics that deals with the mechanical behavior of materials modeled as a continuous mass rather than as discrete particles. The French mathematician Augustin-Louis Cauchy was the first to formulate such models in the 19th century.

Control engineering

Control engineering or control systems engineering is an engineering discipline that applies automatic control theory to design systems with desired behaviors in control environments.^[139] The discipline of controls overlaps and is usually taught along with electrical engineering at many institutions around the world.^[139] .

Convex lens

Lenses are classified by the curvature of the two optical surfaces. A lens is biconvex (or double convex, or just convex) if both surfaces are convex. If both surfaces have the same radius of curvature, the lens is equiconvex. A lens with two concave surfaces is biconcave (or just concave). If one of the surfaces is flat, the lens is plano-convex or plano-concave depending on the curvature of the other surface. A lens with one convex and one concave side is convex-concave or meniscus.

Corrosion

is a natural process, which converts a refined metal to a more chemically-stable form, such as its oxide, hydroxide, or sulfide. It is the gradual destruction of materials (usually metals) by chemical and/or electrochemical reaction with their environment. Corrosion engineering is the field dedicated to controlling and stopping corrosion.

Cosmic rays

Cosmic rays are high-energy radiation, mainly originating outside the Solar System.^[140]

Coulomb

The coulomb (symbol: C) is the International System of Units (SI) unit of electric charge. It is the charge (symbol: Q or q) transported by a constant current of one ampere in one second:

${\displaystyle 1~{\text{C}}=1~{\text{A}}\cdot 1~{\text{s}}}$

Thus, it is also the amount of excess charge on a capacitor of one farad charged to a potential difference of one volt:

${\displaystyle 1~{\text{C}}=1~{\text{F}}\cdot 1~{\text{V}}}$

The coulomb is equivalent to the charge of approximately 6.242×10¹⁸ (1.036×10⁻⁵ mol) protons, and −1 C is equivalent to the charge of approximately 6.242×10¹⁸ electrons. A new definition, in terms of the elementary charge, will take effect on 20 May 2019.^[141] The new definition defines the elementary charge (the charge of the proton) as exactly 1.602176634×10⁻¹⁹ coulombs. This would implicitly define the coulomb as 1⁄0.1602176634×10¹⁸ elementary charges.

Coulomb's law

Coulomb's law, or Coulomb's inverse-square law, is a law of physics for quantifying Coulomb's force, or electrostatic force. Electrostatic force is the amount of force with which stationary, electrically charged particles either repel, or attract each other. This force and the law for quantifying it, represent one of the most basic forms of force used in the physical sciences, and were an essential basis to the study and development of the theory and field of classical electromagnetism. The law was first published in 1785 by French physicist Charles-Augustin de Coulomb.^[142] In its scalar form, the law is:

${\displaystyle F=k_{e}{\frac {q_{1}q_{2}}{r^{2}}}}$,

where k_e is the Coulomb constant (k_e ≈ 9×10⁹ N⋅m²⋅C⁻²), q₁ and q₂ are the signed magnitudes of the charges, and the scalar r is the distance between the charges. The force of the interaction between the charges is attractive if the charges have opposite signs (i.e., F is negative) and repulsive if like-signed (i.e., F is positive). Being an inverse-square law, the law is analogous to Isaac Newton's inverse-square law of universal gravitation. Coulomb's law can be used to derive Gauss's law, and vice versa.

Covalent bond

A covalent bond, also called a molecular bond, is a chemical bond that involves the sharing of electron pairs between atoms.

Crookes tube

A type of vacuum tube that demonstrates cathode rays.

Cryogenics

The science of low temperatures.

Crystallization

Crystallization is the (natural or artificial) process by which a solid forms, where the atoms or molecules are highly organized into a structure known as a crystal. Some of the ways by which crystals form are precipitating from a solution, freezing, or more rarely deposition directly from a gas. Attributes of the resulting crystal depend largely on factors such as temperature, air pressure, and in the case of liquid crystals, time of fluid evaporation.

Crystallography

The study of crystals.

Curvilinear motion

describes the motion of a moving particle that conforms to a known or fixed curve. The study of such motion involves the use of two co-ordinate systems, the first being planar motion and the latter being cylindrical motion.

Cyclotron

A cyclotron is a type of particle accelerator invented by Ernest O. Lawrence in 1929–1930 at the University of California, Berkeley,^[143][144] and patented in 1932.^[145][146] A cyclotron accelerates charged particles outwards from the center along a spiral path.^[147][148] The particles are held to a spiral trajectory by a static magnetic field and accelerated by a rapidly varying (radio frequency) electric field. Lawrence was awarded the 1939 Nobel prize in physics for this invention.^[148][149]

D

Dalton's law

In chemistry and physics, Dalton's law (also called Dalton's law of partial pressures) states that in a mixture of non-reacting gases, the total pressure exerted is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of the individual gases.^[150]

Damped vibration

Any vibration with a force acting against it to lessen the vibration over time.

Darcy–Weisbach equation

An equation used in fluid mechanics to find the pressure change cause by friction within a pipe or conduit.

DC motor

An electrical motor driven by direct current.

Decibel

A logarithmic unit of ratios.

Definite integral

The integral of a function between an upper and lower limit.^[151]

Deflection

is the degree to which a structural element is displaced under a load. It may refer to an angle or a distance.

Deformation (engineering)

In materials science, deformation refers to any changes in the shape or size of an object due to

• an applied force (the deformation energy in this case is transferred through work) or
• a change in temperature (the deformation energy in this case is transferred through heat).

The first case can be a result of tensile (pulling) forces, compressive (pushing) forces, shear, bending, or torsion (twisting). In the second case, the most significant factor, which is determined by the temperature, is the mobility of the structural defects such as grain boundaries, point vacancies, line and screw dislocations, stacking faults and twins in both crystalline and non-crystalline solids. The movement or displacement of such mobile defects is thermally activated, and thus limited by the rate of atomic diffusion.^[152][153]

Deformation (mechanics)

Deformation in continuum mechanics is the transformation of a body from a reference configuration to a current configuration.^[154] A configuration is a set containing the positions of all particles of the body. A deformation may be caused by external loads,^[155] body forces (such as gravity or electromagnetic forces), or changes in temperature, moisture content, or chemical reactions, etc.

Degrees of freedom

The number of parameters required to define the motion of a dynamical system.

Delta robot

A tripod linkage, used to construct fast-acting manipulators with a wide range of movement.

Delta-wye transformer

A type of transformer used in three-phase power systems.

De Moivre–Laplace theorem

In probability theory, the de Moivre–Laplace theorem, which is a special case of the central limit theorem, states that the normal distribution may be used as an approximation to the binomial distribution under certain conditions. In particular, the theorem shows that the probability mass function of the random number of "successes" observed in a series of ${\displaystyle n}$ independent Bernoulli trials, each having probability ${\displaystyle p}$ of success (a binomial distribution with ${\displaystyle n}$ trials), converges to the probability density function of the normal distribution with mean ${\displaystyle np}$ and standard deviation${\displaystyle {\sqrt {np(1-p)}}}$, as ${\displaystyle n}$ grows large, assuming ${\displaystyle p}$Zdroj:https://en.wikipedia.org?pojem=Glossary_of_engineering:_A–L
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