Guadalajara
City and municipality
Guadalajara skyline Expiatorio Church Arcos de Guadalajara Statue of Minerva Hospicio Cabañas Guadalajara Cathedral Degollado Theatre Rotonda de los Jaliscienses Ilustres
Flag Seal
Nicknames:  Pearl of the West The City of Roses Tapatian pearl
Guadalajara Location of Guadalajara within Jalisco Show map of Jalisco Guadalajara Guadalajara (Mexico) Show map of Mexico Guadalajara Guadalajara (North America) Show map of North America
Coordinates: 20°40′36″N 103°20′51″W / 20.67667°N 103.34750°W / 20.67667; -103.34750
Country	Mexico
State	Jalisco
Region	Centro
Municipality	Guadalajara
Foundation	February 14, 1542
Founded by	Cristóbal de Oñate
Named for	Guadalajara, Spain
Government
• Mayor	Pablo Lemus Navarro[2] (MC)
Area
• City and municipality	151 km2 (58 sq mi)
• Metro	2,734 km2 (1,056 sq mi)
Elevation	1,566 m (5,138 ft)
Population  (2020)
• City and municipality	1,385,629 [1]
• Rank	13th in North America 7th in Mexico
• Density	1,491.57/km2 (3,863.1/sq mi)
• Metro	5,286,642 (3rd)[1]
• Metro density	1,897/km2 (4,910/sq mi)
• Demonym	Tapatío Guadalajarense (archaic)[3][4]
Metro area GDP (PPP, constant 2015 values)
• Year	2023
• Total	$123.8 billion[5]
• Per capita	$22,800
Time zone	UTC−6 (CST)
• Summer (DST)	UTC−5 (CDT)
Climate	Cwa
Website	www.guadalajara.gob.mx

Guadalajara (/ˌɡwɑːdələˈhɑːrə/ GWAH-də-lə-HAR-ə,^[6] Spanish: [ɡwaðalaˈxaɾa] ^ⓘ) is a city in western Mexico and the capital of the state of Jalisco. According to the 2020 census, the city has a population of 1,385,629 people, making it the 7th most populous city in Mexico, while the Guadalajara metropolitan area has a population of 5,268,642 people,^[7][8] making it the third-largest metropolitan area in the country and the twentieth largest metropolitan area in the Americas.^[9] Guadalajara has the second-highest population density in Mexico, with over 10,361 people per square kilometer.^[10] Within Mexico, Guadalajara is a center of business, arts and culture, technology and tourism; as well as the economic center of the Bajío region.^[11][12][13] It usually ranks among the 100 most productive and globally competitive cities in the world.^[14] It is home to numerous landmarks, including Guadalajara Cathedral, the Teatro Degollado, the Templo Expiatorio, the UNESCO World Heritage site Hospicio Cabañas, and the San Juan de Dios Market—the largest indoor market in Latin America.^[15][16]

A settlement was established in the region of Guadalajara in early 1532 by Cristóbal de Oñate, a Basque conquistador in the expedition of Nuño Beltrán de Guzmán. The settlement was renamed^[17] and moved several times before assuming the name Guadalajara after the birthplace of Guzmán and ending up at its current location in the Atemajac Valley in 1542. On November 8, 1539, the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V had granted a coat of arms and the title of city to the new town and established it as the capital of the Kingdom of Nueva Galicia, part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain. After 1572, the Royal Audiencia of Guadalajara, previously subordinate to Mexico City, became the only authority in New Spain with autonomy over Nueva Galicia, owing to rapidly growing wealth in the kingdom following the discovery of silver. By the 18th century, Guadalajara had taken its place as Mexico's second largest city, following mass colonial migrations in the 1720s and 1760s. During the Mexican War of Independence, independence leader Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla established Mexico's first revolutionary government in Guadalajara in 1810. The city flourished during the Porfiriato (1876–1911), with the advent of the industrial revolution, but its growth was hampered significantly during the Mexican Revolution (1910–1920). In 1929, the Cristero War ended within the confines of the city, when President Plutarco Elías Calles proclaimed the Grito de Guadalajara. The city saw continuous growth throughout the rest of the 20th century, attaining a metro population of 1 million in the 1960s and surpassing 3 million in the 1990s.

Guadalajara is a Gamma+ global city,^[18] and one of Mexico's most important cultural centers. It is home to numerous mainstays of Mexican culture, including Mariachi, Tequila, and Birria and hosts numerous notable events, including the Guadalajara International Film Festival, one of the most important film festival in Latin America, and the Guadalajara International Book Fair, the largest book fair in the Americas. The city was the American Capital of Culture in 2005 and has hosted numerous global events, including the 1970 FIFA World Cup, the 1986 FIFA World Cup, the 1st Ibero-American Summit in 1991, and the 2011 Pan American Games. The city is home to numerous universities and research institutions, including the University of Guadalajara and the Universidad Autónoma de Guadalajara, two of the highest-ranked universities in Mexico.^[19][20]

Etymology

The conquistador Cristóbal de Oñate named the city in honor of the conqueror of western Mexico, Nuño de Guzmán, who was born in Guadalajara, Spain, which is derived from Moorish Arabic وادي الحجارة (wādī al-ḥajārah), which means 'Valley of the Stones', or 'Fortress Valley'.

History

Pre-Hispanic era

Unlike the surrounding areas, the central Atemajac Valley (where Guadalajara is located) contained no human settlements.^{[citation needed]} To the east of the Atemajac Valley were the Tonallan and Tetlán peoples. At the extremes were the Zapopan, Atemajac, Zoquipan, Tesistan, Coyula, and Huentitán.

The historic city center encompasses what was once four population centers, as the villages of the Mezquitán, Analco, and Mexicaltzingo were annexed to the Atemajac site in 1669.^[21]

Foundation

Guadalajara was originally founded at three other sites before moving to its current location. The first colonial settlement in 1532 was in Mesa del Cerro, now known as Nochistlán, Zacatecas. This site was colonized by Cristóbal de Oñate as commissioned by Nuño de Guzmán, with the purpose of securing recent conquests and "defending" them from the "still-hostile natives". This colonized settlement did not last long due to its lack of usable water sources. In 1533 it was moved to a site near Tonalá. Four years later, Guzmán ordered that the village be moved to Tlacotán. During this time, the Spanish king Charles I granted the city the coat of arms which it retains to this day.^[21]

During the Mixtón War (1540–1542), the Caxcan, Portecuex, and Zacateco peoples, fought back against colonizers under the command of Tenamaxtli.^[21] The war was initiated in response to the heinous treatment of indigenous peoples by Nuño de Guzmán, in particular the enslavement of captured natives. After multiple defeats, Viceroy Antonio de Mendoza took control of the Spanish campaign to suppress the revolt. The conflict ended after Mendoza made concessions such as freeing enslaved indigenous peoples and granting amnesty.^[22] The village of Guadalajara barely survived the war, and the villagers attributed their survival to the Archangel Michael, who remains the patron of the city to this day.

After the war, the city was moved once again—this time to a more defensible location. This final relocation would prove permanent. In 1542, records indicate that 126 people were living in Guadalajara. That same year, it was granted cityhood by the king of Spain. Guadalajara was officially founded on February 14, 1542, in the Atemajac Valley. The colonized settlement was named for Nuño de Guzmán's Spanish hometown.^[21]

In 1559, royal and bishopric offices for the province of Nueva Galicia were moved from Compostela to Guadalajara and, in 1560, Guadalajara became the province's new capital. Construction of the cathedral began in 1563. In 1575, religious orders such as the Augustinians and Dominicans arrived, eventually making the city a center for evangelization efforts.^[21]

While capital of the Kingdom of Nueva Galicia, the city's inhabitants achieved a high standard of living, due to flourishing industry, agriculture, commerce, mining, and trade. The Guadalajara of the 16th century was a rather small and often overlooked community. It was mainly frequented by traveling merchants. Several epidemics drastically reduced the city's indigenous population, leading to the construction of its first hospital in 1557.^{[citation needed]}

Guadalajara's economy during the 18th century was based on agriculture and the production of non-durable goods such as textiles, shoes and food products.^[23]

Despite epidemics, plagues, and earthquakes, Guadalajara would become one of the most important population centers in New Spain. The city's heyday attracted numerous architects, philosophers, lawyers, scientists, poets, writers, and speakers; Francisco Javier Clavijero and Matías Ángel de la Mota Padilla [es] were among the most prominent. In 1771, Bishop Fray Antonio Alcalde arrived in the city and founded the Civil Hospital and the University of Guadalajara. In 1791, the University of Guadalajara was established. The dedication was held in 1792 at the site of the old Santo Tomas College. While the institution was founded during the 18th century, it would not be fully developed until the 20th century, starting in 1925. In 1794, the Hospital Real de San Miguel de Belén [es], or simply the Hospital de Belén, was opened.^[21]

In 1793, Mariano Valdés Téllez Giron ran the city's first printing press, whose first publication was a funeral eulogy for Fray Antonio Alcalde.

Independence

Guadalajara remained the capital of Nueva Galicia with some modifications until the Mexican War of Independence.^[21] Miguel Hidalgo entered San Pedro (now Tlaquepaque) on November 25, 1810, and the next day he was greeted effusively in Guadalajara. The city's workers had experienced poor living conditions and were swayed by promises of lower taxes and the abolition of slavery. Despite a soured welcome, due to the rebel army's violence toward city residents, especially royalists, Hidalgo kept his promise and, on December 6, 1810, slavery was abolished in Guadalajara, a proclamation which has been honored since the end of the war.^[24] During this time, he founded the newspaper El Despertador Americano, dedicated to the insurgent cause.^[21]

Royalist forces marched to Guadalajara, arriving in January 1811 with nearly 6,000 men.^[25] Insurgents Ignacio Allende and Mariano Abasolo wanted to concentrate their forces in the city and plan an escape route should they be defeated, but Hidalgo rejected this idea. Their second choice was to make a stand at the Puente de Calderon just outside the city. Hidalgo had between 80,000 and 100,000 men and 95 cannons, but the better-trained royalists won, decimating the insurgent army and forcing Hidalgo to flee toward Aguascalientes. Guadalajara remained in royalist hands until near the end of the war.^[25][26]'

On January 17, 1817, the insurgent army was again defeated on the outskirts of Guadalajara in the Battle of Calderón Bridge. New Galicia, now Jalisco, adhered to the Plan de Iguala on June 13, 1821.

In 1823, Guadalajara became the capital of the newly founded state of Jalisco.^[21] In 1844, General Mariano Paredes y Arrillaga initiated a revolt against the government of President Antonio López de Santa Anna. Santa Anna personally ensured that the revolt was quelled. However, while Santa Anna was in Guadalajara, a revolt called the Three Hour Revolution brought José Joaquín Herrera to the presidency and put Santa Anna into exile.^[27]

President Benito Juárez made Guadalajara the seat of his government in 1856, during the Reform War. French troops entered the city during the French Intervention in 1864, and it was retaken by Mexican troops in 1866.^[21]

Despite the violence, the 19th century was a period of economic, technological and social growth for the city.^[28] After Independence, small-scale industries developed, many of which were owned by European immigrants. Rail lines connecting the city to the Pacific coast and north to the United States intensified trade and allowed the shipment of products from rural areas of Jalisco. Ranch Culture became a very important aspect of Jalisco and Guadalajara's identities during this time.^[23] From 1884 to 1890, electrical and railroad services, as well as the Guadalajara Observatory were established.^[21]

20th century

Throughout the twentieth century, seeing growth in its industrial, tourist, and service industries, Guadalajara began a period of rapid transformation into the metropolis it is today. The city would gain the second largest economy in Mexico, following only by Mexico City. After the Mexican Revolution of 1910, Guadalajara became the second most populous city in the country. However, the decades that followed brought a number of regional wars in the states of Jalisco, Michoacán, and Guanajuato. The aftermath of the Great Depression took a further toll on the city. Fortunately, by the 1940s the city would experience industrial, demographic, and trade growth.

In 1910, the Mexican Revolution began, bringing an end to the Porfiriato. With conflict concentrated in the capital, Guadalajara experienced relative calm. After the Cristero Conflict, peace returned to Guadalajara and the city flourished, outgrowing its colonial roots. This period saw the birth of new schools of architecture that would decorate the city from the 1920s to the 1980s.

Guadalajara again experienced substantial growth after the 1930s,^[29] and the first industrial park was established in 1947.^[21] Its population surpassed one million in 1964,^[21] and by the 1970s it was Mexico's second-largest city^[29] and the largest in western Mexico.^[23] Most of the modern city's urbanization took place between the 1940s and the 1980s, with the population doubling every ten years until it stood at 2.5 million in 1980.^[30] The population of the municipality has stagnated, and even declined, slowly but steadily, since the early 1990s.^[31]

The increase in population brought with it an increase in the size of what is now called Greater Guadalajara, rather than an increase in the population density of the city. Migrants coming into Guadalajara from the 1940s to the 1980s were mostly from rural areas and lived in the city center until they had enough money to buy property. This property was generally bought in the edges of the city, which were urbanizing into fraccionamientos, or residential areas.^[32] In the 1980s, it was described as a "divided city" east to west based on socioeconomic class. Since then, the city has evolved into four sectors, which are still more or less class-centered. The upper classes tend to live in Hidalgo and Juárez in the northwest and southwest, while the lower classes tend to live in the city center, Libertad in the northeast, and southeast in Reforma. However, lower class development has expanded on the city's periphery and upper and middle classes are migrating toward Zapopan, making the situation less neatly divided.^[33]

Since 1996, the activity of multinational corporations has had a significant effect on the economic and social development of the city. The presence of companies such as Kodak, Hewlett-Packard, Motorola and IBM has been based on production facilities built outside the city proper, bringing in foreign labor and capital. This was made possible in the 1980s by surplus labor, infrastructure improvements, and government incentives. These companies focus on electrical and electronic items, which is now one of Guadalajara's two main products (the other being beer). This has internationalized the economy, steering it away from manufacturing and toward services, dependent on technology and foreign investment. This has not been favorable for the unskilled working class and traditional labor sectors.^[34]

The 1992 Guadalajara explosions occurred on April 22, 1992, when gasoline explosions in the sewer system over four hours destroyed 8 km (5 mi) of streets in the downtown district of Analco.^[35] Gante Street was the most damaged. Officially, 206 people were killed, nearly 500 injured and 15,000 were left homeless. The estimated monetary damage ranges between $300 million and $1 billion. The affected areas can be recognized by their more modern architecture.^[36]

Three days before the explosion, residents started complaining of a strong gasoline-like smell coming from the sewers. City workers were dispatched to check the sewers and found dangerously high levels of gasoline fumes. However, no evacuations were ordered. An investigation into the disaster found that there were two precipitating causes. The first was new water pipes that were built too close to an existing gasoline pipeline. Chemical reactions between the pipes caused erosion. The second was a flaw in the sewer design that did not allow accumulated gases to escape.^[37]

Arrests were made to indict those responsible for the blasts.^[38] Four officials of Pemex (the state oil company) were indicted and charged on the basis of negligence. Ultimately, however, these people were cleared of all charges.^[39] Calls for the restructuring of PEMEX were made but they were successfully resisted.^[40]

The 1990s were marked by events such as the explosions of April 22, 1992, the Mexican peso crisis of 1994, and the murder of the Cardinal Juan Jesús Posadas Ocampo in 1993.^[41] The 1992 explosions caused massive infrastructure damage to hundreds of houses, avenues, streets, and businesses in the Analco neighborhood (barrio), "without a clear delineator of information and responsibilities to date",^[42] in one of the most tragic events in the history of Guadalajara. The investigation of the facts lasted more than 11 years in which insufficient evidence was found to appoint a manager,^[43] investigations are now closed attributing the events to an accident.^[43] This event, in addition to Mexico's 1994 economic crisis, resulted in the loss of Guadalajara's industrial power.^[43]

Guadalajara and its metropolitan area have grown significantly in the 21st century, surpassing 5 million people in 2018.

Americas Avenue

International events

The city has hosted numerous important international events, such as the first Cumbre Iberoamericana in 1991. The Third Summit of Heads of State and Governments of Latin America, the Caribbean, and the European Union was hosted in 2004. Guadalajara was also the venue to the Encuentro Internacional de Promotores y Gestores Culturales in 2005. The 2011 Pan American Games were staged and Guadalajara was named the American Capital of Culture in 2005 as well as the Ciudad Educadora in 2006. Guadalajara has been recognized as Mexico's first Smart City due to its use of developing technology.^[44]

Commercial hubs

During each government period, the city went through structural plans with which new areas and commercial hubs were born and with which transnational corporations and international industries arrived in the city. The city housed the first shopping malls in Mexico.

Expansion and municipality merger

The city expanded rapidly before merging with the Zapopan municipality. Among the developments created during this period were the Guadalajara Expo, the light rail, shopping centers, the expansion of streets and avenues, and the birth and development of road infrastructure, services, tourism, industrial, etc. The first shopping center in Latin America emerged in the city,^[45] the first urban electric-train system in Latin America,^[46] and the first private university in Mexico.^[47]

In a 2007 survey entitled "Cities of the Future", FDi magazine ranked Guadalajara first among major Mexican cities and second among major North American cities in terms of economic potential, behind Chicago. The magazine also rated it as the most business-friendly Latin American city in 2007.^[48]

Geography

Climate

Under the Köppen climate classification, Guadalajara has a humid subtropical climate (Cwa), a temperate climate that is quite close to a tropical climate, featuring dry warm winters and wet, mildly hot summers. Guadalajara's climate is influenced by its high altitude and the general seasonality of precipitation patterns in western North America.

Although the temperature is warm year-round, Guadalajara has strong seasonal variation in precipitation. The northward movement of the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone brings a great deal of rain in the summer months, whereas, for the rest of the year, the climate is rather dry, although daily rainfall records in each dry season month range from 36 millimeters (1.4 in) to 75 millimeters (3.0 in).^[49] The extra moisture during the wet months moderates the temperatures, resulting in cooler days and nights during this period. The highest temperatures are usually reached in May averaging 33 °C (91 °F), but can reach up to 37 °C (99 °F) just before the onset of monsoon season. March tends to be the driest month and July the wettest, with an average of 273 millimeters (10.7 in) of rain, over a quarter of the annual average of about 1,002 millimeters (39.4 in).

During the summer, afternoon storms are very common and can sometimes bring hail flurries to the city, especially toward late August or September. Winters are relatively warm despite the city's altitude, with January daytime temperatures reaching about 25 °C (77 °F) and nighttime temperatures about 10 °C (50 °F). However, the outskirts of the city (generally those close to the Primavera Forest) experience on average cooler temperatures than the city itself. There, temperatures around 0 °C (32 °F) can be recorded during the coldest nights. Frost may also occur during the coldest nights, but temperatures rarely fall below 0 °C (32 °F) in the city, making it an uncommon phenomenon. Cold fronts in winter can sometimes bring light rain to the city for several days in a row. Snowfall is extraordinarily rare, with the last recorded one occurring in December 1997, which was the first time in 116 years, as it had previously last fallen in 1881.^[50]