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The Islamic Republic of Iran has, since its early years and the Iran hostage crisis, engaged it repeated dubious detention of foreign or dual nationals.[1] This occurred for extended period, with long documented history of using the detained party as a bargaining piece in larger diplomatic negotiations.[2] The list below of current and former detainees in Iran excludes people abducted in other countries and brought into the country.[why?]
Hostage diplomacy
Since the Iran hostage crisis, the Islamic Republic of Iran has engaged in a pattern of detaining foreign nationals for extended periods.[1] According to the Center for Human Rights in Iran, the Iranian government has used imprisoned dual and foreign-only nationals "as bargaining chips in its dealings with other nations."[3] Iran's repeated dubious detention of dual citizen and thereafter bargaining behavior have lead observers to qualify the practice as a case of hostage diplomacy, with a long documented history.[2]
Detainees
Dual nationals of Iran and another country are particularly vulnerable to arbitrary detention because the international Master Nationality Rule provides that "a State may not afford diplomatic protection to one of its nationals against a state whose nationality such person also possesses".[4]
According to Human Rights Watch, "Iranian authorities have violated detainees' due process rights and carried out a pattern of politically motivated arrests."[5] In November 2017, Reuters reported that Iran's Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) had arrested "at least 30 dual nationals during the past two years, mostly on spying charges."[6]
Reactions
In September 2019, on the sidelines of the Seventy-fourth session of the United Nations General Assembly, families of dual and foreign nationals imprisoned in Iran as well former dual and foreign nationals imprisoned in Iran launched the "Alliance of Families Against State Hostage Taking."[7][8][9]
In January 2023, France called for the release of seven nationals, who were held in Iran. One of the detainees, Fariba Adelkhak was arrested in June 2019, along with her colleague Roland Marchal. While Marchal was released in 2020, but Fraiban Adelkhak remained in prison amid mounting political tensions in Iran.[10]
Current foreign nationals imprisoned in Iran
| Name | Detained | Citizenship | Days in detention | Reason for detention | Notes | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nazak Afshar | 12 March 2016 | France | 3022 | [11] | ||
| Ahmad Reza Jalali | 24 April 2016 | Sweden | 2979 | [12][13] | ||
| Abdolrasoul Dorri-Esfahani | August 2016 | Canada | ~2880 | In May 2017, convicted on espionage charges, including "collaborating with the British secret service," and sentenced to five years in prison. | [14] | |
| Jamshid Sharmahd | July 2020 | Germany | 1423 | U.S. permanent resident. Sentenced to death February 2023. | [15] | |
| Nahid Taghavi | 16 October 2020 | Germany | [16] | |||
| Mehran Raoof | 16 October 2020 | UK | [17] |
U.S. citizens
| Name | Detained | Released | Days in detention | Reason for detention | Notes | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Masoud Jamali Ashtiani | 20 May 2012 | 20 May 2013 | 365 | propaganda against the regime | 41 days in solidarity confinement | [citation needed] |
| Emad Shargi | 30 November 2020 | 18 September 2023 | 1022 | Espionage / Spying | Member of [18] in exchange for 5 U.S. prisoners and unfreezing of $6 billion in Iranian assets. Had been sentenced to 10 years in January 2021. Had previously been cleared in December 2019. (Iranian national who also holds US citizenship.) | [19][20][18] |
| Michael White | July 2018 | 19 March 2020 | ~2181 | [11] | ||
| Morad Tahbaz | January 2018 | 18 September 2023 | ~2086 | Conspiring with America | Member of group of 5 released in Sept 2023 in exchange for 5 U.S. prisoners and unfreezing of $6 billion in Iranian assets. (Iranian national who also holds US and UK citizenship.) | [21][22][18] |
| Xiyue Wang | 8 August 2016 | 7 December 2019 | 1216 | [23] | ||
| Gholamreza (Reza) "Robin" Shahini | 11 July 2016 | 21 March 2017 | 253 | [24] | ||
| Karan Vafadari | 20 July 2016 | 21 July 2018 | 731 | Released on bail but reportedly has not been permitted to leave Iran. | [25][26][22] | |
| Baquer Namazi | 22 February 2016 | 1 October 2022 | 3041 | Released during the Mahsa Amini protests | [27][28] | |
| Siamak Namazi | 13 October 2015 | 18 September 2023 | 2895 | spying | Member of group of 5 released in Sept 2023 in exchange for 5 U.S. prisoners and unfreezing of $6 billion in Iranian assets. (Iranian national who also holds US citizenship.) | [29][30][22][18] |
| Nosratollah Khosravi-Roodsari | May 2015 | 16 January 2016 | ~260 | [31] | ||
| Matthew Trevithick | 7 December 2015 | 16 January 2016 | 39 | [32] | ||
| Jason Rezaian | 22 July 2014 | 16 January 2016 | 543 | [33][34] | ||
| Saeed Abedini | 28 July 2012 | 16 January 2016 | 1277 | [34][35] | ||
| Afsaneh Azadeh | 13 May 2012 | September 2012 | ~111 | Azadeh was released from detention to house arrest from September 2012 – November 2012. She was not permitted to leave the country until May 2013. | [36] | |
| Amir Hekmati | 29 August 2011 | 16 January 2016 | 1601 | [34][37] | ||
| Joshua Fattal | 31 July 2009 | 21 September 2011 | 782 | |||
| Shane Bauer | 31 July 2009 | 21 September 2011 | 782 | |||
| Sarah Shourd | 31 July 2009 | 14 September 2010 | 410 | |||
| Roxana Saberi | 31 January 2009 | 11 May 2009 | 100 | [38] | ||
| Esha Momeni | 15 October 2008 | 10 November 2008 | 26 | Momeni was released on bail in November 2008 but she was not permitted to leave Iran until August 2009. | [39] | |
| Reza Taghavi | May 2008 | 16 October 2010 | ~898 | [40] | ||
| Nik Moradi | 31 October 2007 | 15 April 2008 | 167 | [41] | ||
| Kian Tajbakhsh | 11 May 2007 | 19 September 2007 | 140 | |||
| Ali Shakeri | 8 May 2007 | 25 September 2007 | 140 | |||
| Haleh Esfandiari | 8 May 2007 | 21 August 2007 | 105 | [42][43] | ||