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The Hebrew Bible contains a number of references to rape and other forms of sexual violence, both in the Law of Moses, its historical narratives and its prophetic poetry.
History of scholarship
Until well into the 20th century, most translators and commentators did not recognise any texts in the Hebrew Bible as containing acts of rape, that is, sexual actions performed without the consent of both participants.[citation needed] Some narratives such as those of Samson and Delilah (Judges 16) and Shechem and Dinah (Genesis 34) were even interpreted to be love stories (e.g. about elopement) rather than rape stories.[1] An example of a rare exception to this is a claim by Thomas Paine, who asserted in The Age of Reason (1795) that Numbers 31 portrayed Moses as ordering the Israelites to kill all Midianites except the virgin girls, whom they could keep for what Paine termed "debauchery": "Among the detestable villains that in any period of the world would have disgraced the name of man, it is impossible to find a greater than Moses, if this account be true. Here is an order to butcher the boys, to massacre the mothers, and debauch the daughters."[2][3] In An Apology for the Bible (1796), Richard Watson, the Bishop of Llandaff, sought to refute Paine's arguments:[3] "I see nothing in this proceeding, but good policy, combined with mercy. The women-children were not reserved for the purposes of debauchery, but of slavery."[4] In any case, Paine was not so much focused on sexual violence in particular; this example was part of his general critique of Christian ethics.[3] Johannes Pedersen's work Israel, Its Life and Culture (1926, 1940), commonly cited by scholars for information about Israelite sexual mores, never mentioned rape, only 'forbidden degrees of relationship'. Several Bible passages, which were later widely recognised as 'rape texts', were referred to by Pedersen as 'inappropriate marriage arrangements'.[5]
It was not until the late 1970s, with the emergence of the anti-rape movement due to second-wave feminism, that feminist scholars reached the consensus that some texts in the Hebrew Bible referred to rape, such as the Levite's concubine and the Benjamites seizing the virgins of Jabesh-Gilead and Shiloh as gang rapes (Judges 19–21).[6] However, they also initially disagreed whether some narratives such as Dinah (Genesis 34) and Hagar depicted sexual violence or not.[7] Some of the most notable works in this formative era in the study of biblical rape literature were:[8]
- Phyllis Trible's Texts of Terror: literary-feminist readings of Biblical narratives (1984), the first feminist scholarly publication which posited that Hagar (Genesis 16; 21), Tamar (2 Samuel 13) and the Levite's concubine (Judges 19) were rape narratives.
- J. Cheryl Exum's Fragmented Women: Feminist (Sub)versions of Biblical Narratives (1993) on the wife-sister stories (Genesis 12; 20; 26), Dinah (Genesis 34), Samson and Delilah (Judges 16), the Levite's concubine (Judges 19), and Bathsheba and David (2 Samuel 11) as rape stories.
- Renita J. Weems' Battered Love: Marriage, Sex, and Violence in the Hebrew Prophets (1995) on sexual violence in marriage metaphors in Hosea, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel.
- Jonathan Kirsch's The Harlot by the Side of the Road: Forbidden Tales of the Bible (1997) on Lot's daughters (Genesis 19), Dinah (Genesis 34), and Tamar (2 Samuel 13) as three rape stories.
With regards to the Hebrew Bible's attitude to rape, particularly the sex laws in Deuteronomy chapters 20 to 22, two schools of thought have emerged. In one camp are scholars such as Richard Elliott Friedman and Shawna Dolansky, who concerning "Women's Status" in The Bible Now (2011) wrote: "What should not be in doubt is the biblical view of rape: it is horrid. It is decried in the Bible's stories. It is not tolerated in the Bible's laws."[9] In the other camp are scholars such as Harold C. Washington, who in 'Lest he die in the battle and another man take her': Violence and the construction of gender in the laws of Deuteronomy 20–22 (1998) concluded: "The laws do not interdict sexual violence; rather they stipulate the terms under which a man may commit rape."[10]
Terminology
Scholars such as Susanne Scholz (2021) have pointed out that the meanings of words in the Hebrew Bible always depend on their context, and Bible translators or commentators often misinterpret terms, miss important nuances, or use euphemisms for sexual violence. Even in modern English, the verb 'to rape' does not necessarily always refer to sexual violence, but could be used metaphorically to describe being subjected to a deeply unpleasant yet non-sexual experience.[11] Similarly, a Hebrew verb such as עָנָה anah usually means 'to rape, to force/violate sexually', but in some non-sexual contexts is best translated as 'to oppress', 'to weaken', and so on. On the other hand, normally non-sexual words may sometimes describe something sexual; a verb such as עָשַׁק 'āšaq usually means 'to crush, to destroy, to oppress', but in one particular Bible verse (Isaiah 23:12) may actually mean 'to rape' in connection with the term 'virgin daughter', as the latter has a special sexual meaning.[12] Biblical Hebrew is also full of euphemisms and sexual slang that may be difficult for modern readers to understand. 'To lie with', 'to know', 'to come to', and 'to uncover the nakedness of' are such examples which, in particular contexts, mean 'to have sex'. Such phrases do not necessarily imply that this sex is forced by one person upon another, and could actually describe consensual sex, but especially if the context of the narrative adds forms of coercion (such as violence and intimidation) upon someone, or claims that this serves as a 'punishment', then 'to rape' becomes a plausible translation. Likewise, nouns such as 'skirts', 'nakedness' and 'shame' may be euphemisms for 'women's genitals'.[13]
Verbs that could mean 'to rape' or 'to have sex'
- עִנָה inah[14] = (explicit) to rape, to force , to defile, to violate, to ravish, to mistreat, to afflict, to humble/humiliate, to oppress, to subject/submit/subdue, to weaken;[15] probably means 'to rape' in Judges 20:5[a] and 2 Samuel 13:14.[b][16]
- עָשַׁק āšaq = to crush, to destroy, to oppress, (+ virgin) to rape? (Isaiah 23:12)[17][18]
- בּוֹא bô = to come (on) to, to come upon, (euphemism) to have sex with, to enter/insert, to bring, to go, to go down (the sun)[19]
- sometimes combined with אֵל el = in, into. Examples: 2 Samuel 16:21–22.
- גָּלָה gālâ = to uncover (nakedness), to strip (clothes), (implicit) to rape[17][20]
- נָבֵל nābal (pi'el) = (explicit) to sexually violate (e.g. in Genesis 34:7, Judges 19–21, 2 Samuel 13:12, and 3 Nahum 6),[21] to make vile, to disgrace, to treat contemptuously, to make foolish[22]
- פִּתָה pitâ, pithah[23] = to entice, to seduce, to persuade, to deceive, to fool, to flatter? (Proverbs 20:19), to prevail? (Ezekiel 14:9), to (al)lure? (Hosea 2:14), (in pi'el (adds force)) to coax/force sexually? (Judges 14:15, Judges 16:5, Hosea 2:14)[24][25]
- sometimes combined with חָזַק ḥāzaq, chazaq = to be strong(er), to become strong/powerful, to prevail/overpower, to seize/catch, to hold/retain, to strengthen/harden (oneself, someone else, or an object e.g. Pharaoh's heart in Exodus 4–14), to repair/fortify (a defensive structure, 2 Kings 12, 2 Chronicles 11;24;26, Nehemiah), to be courageous, to encourage/persuade.[26] Scholars debate whether the combination of פָּתָה pātâ and חָזַק ḥāzaq, for example in Jeremiah 20:7, should be understood as rape or not.[27]
- רָאָה rā'â = to see (exposed genitals),[28] (implicit) to rape[17]
- שָׁגַל šāgal = (vulgar) to ravish, to rape, to violate, (euphemistic translation) to lie with (Deuteronomy 28:30, Isaiah 13:16, Jeremiah 3:2, Zechariah 14:2)[17][29]
- שָׁכַב šākab = to lie (down), to sleep, (euphemism) to lie/sleep with, (+ force) to rape.[17][30]
- סוּר sur = to remove/strip (clothes or other objects), to take/put away, to behead/decapitate, to separate, to turn aside (or: to decline), to withdraw/retract, to depart/leave[31]
- טָמֵא tame = (passive) to become unclean, to be pronounced unclean, (active, passive or reflexive) to defile (someone, oneself) / to be defiled, (implicit) to have illicit sex with someone / to be subjected to illicit sex by someone (by seduction or rape)[32]
- תָּפַשׂ tāphaś = to take, to catch, to capture, to grab/grasp, to seize, to lay hold, to arrest, to occupy, to profane, to handle/wield/play (an object)[33]
- צָחַק tsachaq = (positive) to laugh, to jest/mock, to sport, to caress / make love / have sex (Genesis 26:8),[17] to play[34]
- יָדַע yada = to know, (euphemism) to have sex(ual relations) with, (euphemism) (+ force) to rape[17][35]
- sometimes combined with מִשְׁכָּב miš-kaḇ ("bed", colloquially "lying (down)")[36] = (literally) to know in bed, (older Bible translations) to know intimately/carnally / to know by lying with, (modern Bible translations) to have sex(ual relations) with (e.g. Numbers 31:18, where the phrase 'women children who have not known a man in bed' is sometimes translated simply as 'virgin girls')[37]
- זָנָה zanah = (pejorative) to act as a harlot/whore, to play a/the harlot/whore, to go a whoring, to commit fornication, to commit whoredom, to be unfaithful/adulterous[38]
Nouns for genitals
- בָּ֫טֶן beṭen = womb, abdomen[39]
- עֶרְוָה 'erwâ, ervah = nakedness, bare flesh, genitals[40]
- חֶרְפָּה ḥerpâ, cherpah = shame, vagina[40]
- מַ֫עַר ma'ar = nakedness, genitals[13]
- פּוֹת pōt = (only in Isaiah 3:17, vulgar) cunt, (euphemistic translation) private parts, (fore)head/scalp, (only in 1 Kings 7:50) door socket[41][42]
- שֹׁ֛בֶל šō-ḇel = skirt (also euphemism for women's genitals[13])
Nouns for humiliation
- נְבָלָה nebalah = rape, disgraceful act/thing, folly, villainy, foolishness[17][43]
- קָלוֹן qālôn = disgrace, dishonour, shame[44] (also euphemism for women's genitals[13])
- רֹ֫אּי roi = (pejorative) gazingstock, spectacle, appearance[45]
Examples
Genesis
Genesis 9
In Genesis 9:22, just after the Genesis flood narrative, it is written that Ham, a son of Noah, "saw" his father's "nakedness", a phrase which elsewhere in the Hebrew Bible can mean "had sex with". Some interpretations conclude that Ham had sex with Noah, perhaps even "sodomised" him in his sleep. The same explanations are found in three Greek translations of the Bible, which replace the word "see" in verse 22 with another word denoting homosexual relations. Because of what happened, Noah put a curse on Ham's son Canaan and his descendents, the Canaanites.[46]
Genesis 16
Phyllis Trible (1984) was the first scholar to suggest that the story of Hagar in Genesis 16:1–4 was a rape narrative,[47] a conclusion later supported by some feminist biblical researchers such as J. Cheryl Exum[48] and Suzanne Scholz,[49] but rejected by others.[7] Some have even considered the possibility that verse 16:6 is saying that Sarah "raped" Hagar as well, since the verb used, עִנָה inah in the pi'el, is sometimes used elsewhere in the Hebrew Bible to mean "to rape", "to mistreat" or "to oppress" (amongst other things), depending on the context.[50] Trible rejected that idea, reasoning that it simply meant 'oppression'; womanist theologian Delores S. Williams (1993) accepted it as the sexual violation of her physical integrity; Scholz concluded that 'the story does not provide a clear answer'.[16]
Genesis 19
Genesis 19 features an attempted gang rape. Two angels arrive in Sodom, and Lot shows them hospitality. However, the men of the city gathered around Lot's house and demanded that he give them the two guests so that they could rape them. In response to this, Lot offers the mob his two virgin daughters instead. The mob refuses Lot's offer, but the angels strike them with blindness, God eventually destroys the city, and Lot and his family escape.
Genesis 19 goes on to relate how Lot's daughters get him drunk and have sex with him. As a result, the eponymous ancestors of Moab and Ammon, recurring enemies of Israel, were born. A number of commentators describe their actions as rape. Esther Fuchs (2003) suggests that the text presents Lot's daughters as the "initiators and perpetrators of the incestuous 'rape'."[51]
Gerda Lerner (1986) has suggested that because the Hebrew Bible takes for granted Lot's right to offer his daughters for rape, we can assume that it reflected a historical reality of a father's power over them.[52]
Genesis 34
In Genesis 34, Shechem had sex with Dinah, but how this text is to be exactly translated and understood is the subject of scholarly controversy. Most modern scholars claim that it describes rape, and many modern translations render it as 'raped' (or with similar verbiage of sexual forcing),[53] while some earlier commentators also proposed elopement.[54]
| Genesis 34:2–3 | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Leningrad Codex (1008) | King James Version (1611) | New International Version (1978) | Susanne Scholz (2014) | |
| [55]וַיַּ֨רְא אֹתָ֜הּ שְׁכֶ֧ם בֶּן־חֲמֹ֛ור הַֽחִוִּ֖י נְשִׂ֣יא הָאָ֑רֶץ וַיִּקַּ֥ח אֹתָ֛הּ וַיִּשְׁכַּ֥ב אֹתָ֖הּ וַיְעַנֶּֽהָ׃ | And when Shechem the son of Hamor the Hivite prince of the country saw her he took her and lay with her and defiled her.[56] | When Shechem son of Hamor the Hivite, the ruler of that area, saw her, he took her and raped her.[56] | When Shechem son of Hamor the Hivite, prince of the region, saw her, he took her, and he laid her, and he raped her.[54] | |
| [57]וַתִּדְבַּ֣ק נַפְשֹׁ֔ו בְּדִינָ֖ה בַּֽת־יַעֲקֹ֑ב וַיֶּֽאֱהַב֙ אֶת־הַֽנַּעֲרָ֔ וַיְדַבֵּ֖ר עַל־לֵ֥ב הַֽנַּעֲרָֽ׃ | And his soul clave unto Dinah the daughter of Jacob, and he loved the damsel, and spake kindly unto the damsel.[58] | His heart was drawn to Dinah daughter of Jacob; he loved the young woman and spoke tenderly to her.[58] | And he stayed with/kept Dinah, the daughter of Jacob, and he lusted after the young woman, and he tried to quiet the young woman.[54] | |
Linguistic analysis
Mary Anna Bader (2006) notes the division between verses 2 and 3, and writes that "It is strange and upsetting for the modern reader to find the verbs 'love' and 'dishonor' together, having the same man as their subject and the same woman as their object."[59] Later, she writes that "The narrator gives the reader no information about Dinah's thoughts or feelings or her reactions to what has taken place. Shechem is not only the focalizor but also the primary actor...The narrator leaves no room for doubt that Shechem is the center of these verses. Dinah is the object (or indirect object) of Shechem's actions and desires."[60] Frank M. Yamada (2008) argues that the abrupt transition between Genesis 34:2 and 34:3 was a storytelling technique due to the fact that the narrative focused on the men, a pattern which he perceives in other rape narratives as well, also arguing that the men's responses are depicted in a mixed light. "The rape of Dinah is narrated in a way that suggests there are social forces at work, which complicate the initial seal violation and will make problematic the resulting male responses. The abrupt transition from rape to marriage, however, creates a tension in the reader's mind...the unresolved issue of punishment anticipates the response of Simeon and Levi."[61]
Contrary to Bader and Yamada, however, Scholz (2021) asserted that, despite being a passive object, Dinah rather than Shechem is central in the narrative, and the verbs in verse 3 are widely mistranslated. דָּבַק dabaq, frequently translated as 'to love (someone)', is never translated like that elsewhere in the Hebrew Bible, but as 'to cling to (someone)' (Ruth 1:14 NRSV), 'to keep close to (someone)' (Ruth 2:23 NRSV), 'to remain close to (someone)' (Psalm 101:3 A. A. Anderson), 'to retain (the inheritance)' (Numbers 36:7,9 NRSV), or 'to keep something (possession)' according to Wilhelm Gesenius. Scholz concluded: "...'to love' is entirely inadequate. A better translation emphasizes spatial closeness: 'Shechem stayed with Dinah' or "Shechem kept Dinah,' in the sense of not allowing her to leave."[62] In the given context, the middle verb אָהַב aheb is better translated as 'to lust after (someone)' or 'to desire (someone)' rather than 'to love (someone)', as this feeling is sexual rather than romantic and entirely one-sided from a controlling subject to a sexually forced object.[63] The third verb is part of a phrase, וַיְדַבֵּ֖ר עַל־לֵ֥ב הַֽנַּעֲרָֽ׃ way-ḏab-bêr ‘al-lêḇ han-na-‘ă-rā, literally meaning "and he spoke to the young woman's heart". While many translations render this as "he spoke tenderly to her" (NRSV), Scholz followed Georg Fischer (1984), who noted the same phrase in the Hebrew Bible always appears when "the situation is wrong, difficult, or danger is in the air",[c] and should be understood as "to try to talk against a negative opinion" or "to change a person's mind". Therefore, Scholz argued that Shechem tried to calm down Dinah after the rape and to change her negative opinion by talking to her, and rendered the last part of verse 3 as "He tried to quiet down the young woman."[64]
Historical-ethical analysis
Shechem's rape of Dinah in Genesis 34 is described in the text itself as "a thing that should not be done."[65] Susanne Scholz (2000) writes that "The brothers' revenge, however, also demonstrates their conflicting views about women. On the one hand they defend their sister. On the other hand they do not hesitate to capture other women as if these women were their booty. The connection of the rape and the resulting revenge clarifies that no easy solutions are available to stop rapists and rape-prone behavior. In this regard Genesis 34 invites contemporary readers to address the prevalence of rape through the metaphoric language of a story."[66] In a different work, Scholz (2010) writes that "During its extensive history of interpretation, Jewish and Christian interpreters mainly ignored Dinah. in many interpretations, the fraternal killing is the criminal moment, and in more recent years scholars have argued explicitly against the possibility that Shechem rapes Dinah. They maintain that Shechem's love and marriage proposal do not match the 'scientifically documented behavior of a rapist'."[67][68] Scholz (2000) argued that Dinah's silence does not mean she consented: "The literary analysis showed, however, that despite this silence Dinah is present throughout the story. Indeed, everything happens because of her. Informed by feminist scholarship, the reading does not even require her explicit comments."[69]
Rabbi and scholar Burton Visotzky (2010) stated that the story describes a marry-your-rapist rule:[70]
It was a society in which the victim's shame had to be accounted for, and marriage did erase the shame attendant upon the loss of virginity. But this is shame of an empathically male construction and stunningly lacking in sympathy for the woman victim. There is little face to be gained from the dubious honor of marrying your rapist. At least Dinah's brothers agree with this last point, if not with how I arrived there. I do not believe rape was an issue for them. Shame and control were their buttons. Rape is one of ours.
Sandra E. Rapoport (2011) argues that "The Bible text is sympathetic to Shechem in the verses following his rape of Dinah, at the same time that it does not flinch from condemning the lawless predatory behavior towards her. One midrash even attributes Shechem's three languages of love in verse 3 to God's love for the Children of Israel."[71] She also put forth that "Shechem's character is complex. He is not easily characterized as unqualifiedly evil. It is this complexity that creates unbearable tension for the reader and raises the justifiably strong emotions of outrage, anger, and possible compassion."[72] Therefore, Rapoport regards Genesis 34 as condemning rape strongly, writing, "The brothers' revenge killings of Shechem and Hamor, while they might remind modern readers of frontier justice and vigilantism, are an understandable measure-for-measure act in the context of the ancient Near East."[73]
Genesis 39
Some have argued that a rare Biblical instance of sexual harassment and assault perpetrated against a man by a woman can be found in Genesis 39.[74] In this chapter, the enslaved Joseph is repeatedly propositioned by the wife of his master Potiphar. Joseph refuses to have sex with her, as he has no marital right to do so and it would be a sin against the god Yahweh (Genesis 39:6–10).[74] Potiphar's wife eventually demands that he come to bed with her and grabs at his clothing (Genesis 39:12). Joseph escapes, leaving the article of clothing with her (different translations describe the article of clothing as, for example, Joseph's "garment", "robe", "coat", or even simply "clothes"). Potiphar's wife then tells first her servants, and then her husband, that Joseph had attacked her (Genesis 39:13–18).[74] Joseph is sent to prison (Genesis 39:19–20), where he remains until his God-given ability to interpret dreams leads the Pharaoh to ask for his help (Genesis 41:14).[74]
Scholars such as Meir Sternberg (1985) characterise the woman's repetitive behaviour towards Joseph as sexual assault.[74] McKinlay (1995) noted that Potiphar's wife is treated as an object in his master's possession (Gen 39:8–9), and the reason Joseph refuses is not because he does not want to have sex with her, but because it would violate his master's trust and be a sin against Yahweh.[74] It could be argued that the woman is trying to assert herself as a subject who makes her own choices instead of remaining an object owned by her husband, and invites Joseph to join her in this action which the narrative frames as a 'sin.'[74] Simultaneously, however, she abuses her position of power as the slave master's wife to proposition Joseph, and to punish him for refusal.[74] Susan Tower Hollis (1989) suggests that the narrative of Potiphar's wife 'is in line with certain ancient folk-tales, where a 'woman makes vain overtures to a man and then accuses him of attempting to force her', with the man 'unjustly punished for his alleged attempt to seduce the woman.'[74]
Numbers 31
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Moses, Eleazar the priest and all the leaders of the community went to meet them outside the camp. Moses was angry with the officers of the army—the commanders of thousands and commanders of hundreds—who returned from the battle. "Have you allowed all the women to live?" he asked them. "They were the ones who followed Balaam's advice and enticed the Israelites to be unfaithful to in the Peor incident, so that a plague struck 's people. Now kill all the boys. And kill every woman who has slept with a man, but save for yourselves every girl who has never slept with a man.
— Numbers 31:13–18 NIV)[75]
This has been interpreted as a passage making rape 'a normative practice in war'.[76] Rabbi and scholar Shaye J. D. Cohen (1999) argued that "the implications of Numbers 31:17–18 are unambiguous we may be sure that for yourselves means that the warriors may 'use' their virgin captives sexually", adding that Shimon bar Yochai understood the passage 'correctly'. On the other hand, he noted that other rabbinical commentaries such as B. and Y. Qiddushin and Yevamot claimed "that for yourselves meant 'as servants.' Later apologists, both Jewish and Christian, adopted the latter interpretation."[77] In addition, the Israelite soldiers were immediately commanded to purify themselves and their spoil, including the captives, in Numbers 31:19 so they could be reminded of how "disruptive" death was.[78]
Deuteronomyedit
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Deuteronomy 20edit
Deuteronomy 20:14 indicates that all women and child captives become enslaved property:[79]
As for the women, the children, the livestock and everything else in the city, you may take these as plunder for yourselves. And you may use the plunder Yahweh your God gives you from your enemies. (Deuteronomy 20:14 NIV)[80]
In their human rights study of wartime sexual violence, Kennedy‐Pipe & Stanley (2000) referred to Deuteronomy 20:14 when stating: 'The advocacy of rape in war was prevalent throughout ancient Near East history and is evident in the Hebrew Bible: women are frequently depicted as mere objects of male possession and control. Biblical references clearly illustrate this point in relation to the treatment of women in wartime, where they were regarded as 'spoils of war'.'[81]
Deuteronomy 21edit
Deuteronomy 21:10–14 states:
When you go to war against your enemies and Yahweh your God delivers them into your hands and you take captives, if you notice among the captives a beautiful woman and are attracted to her, you may take her as your wife. Bring her into your home and have her shave her head, trim her nails and put aside the clothes she was wearing when captured. After she has lived in your house and mourned her father and mother for a full month, then you may go to her and be her husband and she shall be your wife. If you are not pleased with her, let her go wherever she wishes. You must not sell her or treat her as a slave, since you have dishonored her. (Deuteronomy 21:10–14 NIV)[82]
This passage is grouped with laws concerning sons and inheritance, suggesting that the passage's main concern is with the regulation of marriage in such a way as to transform the woman taken captive in war into an acceptable Israelite wife, in order to beget legitimate Israelite children. Caryn Reeder (2017) notes, "The month-long delay before the finalization of the marriage would thus act in part as a primitive pregnancy test."[83]
The idea that the captive woman will be raped is, according to Reeder, supported by the fact that in passages like Isaiah 13:16 and Zechariah 14:2, sieges lead to women being "ravished".[83] M.I. Rey (2016) notes that the passage "conveniently provides a divorce clause to dispose of her (when she is no longer sexually gratifying) without providing her food or shelter or returning her to her family... In this way, the foreign captive is divorced not for objectionable actions like other (Israelite/Hebrew) wives but for reasons beyond her control."[84]
Zdroj:https://en.wikipedia.org?pojem=Rape_in_the_Hebrew_Bible
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