Ukrainian Jews
יהדות אוקראינה‎
Українськi євреї

The location of Ukraine in Europe
Total population
2010 est. 71,500 core – 200,000 enlarged [1] 360,000–400,000 by 2014 est. [1][2]
Regions with significant populations
Kyiv	110,000[3]
Dnipro	60,000[3]
Kharkiv	45,000[3]
Odesa	45,000[3]
Languages
Russian (83.0%), Ukrainian[4][5][6][7] (13.4%), Yiddish[4][8] (3.1%), Hebrew[9]
Religion
Judaism, Christianity and other (including atheism)
Related ethnic groups
Jews, Ashkenazi Jews, Russian Jews, Mountain Jews, Belarusian Jews, Romanian Jews, Hungarian Jews, Polish Jews

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The history of the Jews in Ukraine dates back over a thousand years; Jewish communities have existed in the modern territory of Ukraine from the time of the Kievan Rus' (late 9th to mid-13th century).^[10][11] Important Jewish religious and cultural movements, from Hasidism to Zionism, arose there. According to the World Jewish Congress, the Jewish community in Ukraine constitutes Europe's third-largest and the world's fifth-largest.^[3]

At times it flourished, while at other times it faced persecution and anti-Semitic discrimination. In the Ukrainian People's Republic (1917-1920), Yiddish became a state language, along with Ukrainian and Russian. At that time, the Jewish National Union was created and the community was granted autonomous status.^[12] Yiddish was used on Ukrainian currency between 1917 and 1920.^[13] Before World War II, slightly less than one-third of Ukraine's urban population consisted of Jews.^[14] Ukrainian Jews included sub-groups with distinct characteristics, including Ashkenazi Jews, Mountain Jews, Bukharan Jews, Crimean Karaites, Krymchak Jews, and Georgian Jews.

In the westernmost region, Jews were mentioned for the first time in records in 1030. During the Khmelnytsky Uprising between 1648 and 1657, an army of Cossacks massacred and took large numbers of Jews, Roman Catholics, and Uniate Christians into captivity. One estimate (1996) reported that 15,000-30,000 Jews were killed or taken captive, and that 300 Jewish communities were completely destroyed.^[15] More recent estimates (2014) report mortality of 3,000-6,000 people between the years 1648–1649.^[16]

During 1821 anti-Jewish riots in Odesa followed the death of the Greek Orthodox Patriarch in Constantinople, in which 14 Jews were recorded killed. Some sources claim this episode as the first pogrom.^[17] At the start of the 20th century, anti-Jewish pogroms continued, leading to large-scale emigration. In 1915, the imperial Russian government expelled thousands of Jews from the Empire's border areas.^[18][19]

During the Russian Revolution and ensuing Civil War, an estimated 31,071 Jews were killed in pogroms between 1918 and 1920.^[20] During the Ukrainian People's Republic (1917–21),^[21] pogroms continued. In Ukraine, the number of civilian Jews killed by the Ukrainian Army under Symon Petliura during the period was estimated at between 35,000 to 100,000.^[22]

Pogroms erupted in January 1919 in the northwest province of Volhynia and spread to many other regions^[23] and continued until 1921.^[24] The actions of the Soviet government by 1927 led to a growing antisemitism.^[25]

Total civilian losses in Ukraine during World War II and the German occupation are estimated at seven million. More than one million Soviet Jews, including 225,000 in Belarus,^[26] were killed by the Einsatzgruppen and their many Ukrainian supporters. Most of them were killed in Ukraine because most pre-WWII Soviet Jews lived in the Pale of Settlement, of which Ukraine was the biggest part. The major massacres against Jews occurred mainly in the first phase of the occupation, although they continued until the return of the Red Army. In 1959 Ukraine had 840,000 Jews, a decrease of almost 70% from 1941 totals (within Ukraine's current borders). Ukraine's Jewish population continued to decline significantly during the Cold War. In 1989, Ukraine's Jewish population was only slightly more than half of what it was in 1959. During and after the collapse of communism in the 1990s, the majority of Jews in 1989 left the country and moved abroad (mostly to Israel).^[27] Antisemitism, including violent attacks on Jews, is still a problem in Ukraine.^[28]

Kievan Rus'

By the 11th century, Byzantine Jews of Constantinople had familial, cultural, and theological ties with the Jews of Kyiv. For instance, some 11th-century Jews from Kievan Rus participated in an anti-Karaite assembly held in either Thessaloniki or Constantinople.^[29] One of the three Kyivan city gates in the times of Yaroslav the Wise was called Zhydovski (Judaic).

Galicia-Volhynia

In Galicia, Jews were mentioned for the first time in 1030. From the second part of the 14th century, they were subjects of Polish kings and magnates. The Jewish population of Galicia and Bukovina, part of Austria-Hungary, made up 5% of the global Jewish population.

Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth

From the founding of the Kingdom of Poland in the 10th century through the creation of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1569, Poland was one of the most diverse countries in Europe. It became home to one of the world's largest and most vibrant Jewish communities. The Jewish community in the territory of Ukraine-proper during the Commonwealth became one of the largest and most important ethnic minority groups in Ukraine.^{[citation needed]}

Cossack Uprising and the Deluge

Ukrainian Cossack Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky led a Cossack uprising, known as Khmelnytsky Uprising (1648–1657), under the premise that the Poles had sold them as slaves "into the hands of the accursed Jews." It is estimated that at that time the Jewish population in Ukraine numbered 51,325.^[30] An army of Cossacks massacred and took into captivity numerous Jews, Roman Catholics and Ukrainian Greek Catholics in 1648–49.

A 1996 estimate reports that 15,000-30,000 Jews were killed or taken captive, and that 300 Jewish communities were destroyed.^[15] A 2014 estimate reduces the toll to 3,000-6,000 from 1648–1649; of these, 3,000-6,000 Jews were killed by Cossacks in Nemirov in May 1648 and 1,500 in Tulczyn in July 1648.^[16]

Rise of Hasidism and internal struggles

The Cossack Uprising and the Deluge left a deep and lasting impression on Jewish social and spiritual life.^{[citation needed]}

This was a time of mysticism and overly formal rabbinism. The teachings of Israel ben Eliezer, known as the Baal Shem Tov, or BeShT, (1698–1760) had a profound effect on Eastern European Jews.^{[citation needed]} His disciples taught and encouraged a new and fervent brand of Judaism, related to Kabbalah, known as Hasidism. The rise of Hasidism influenced Haredi Judaism, with a continuous influence through many Hasidic dynasties.

A different movement was started by Jacob Frank in the middle of the 18th century. Frank's teachings were unorthodox (such as purification through transgression and adoption of elements of Christianity). He was excommunicated along with his numerous followers. They eventually converted to Catholicism.^[31]

Russian Empire and Austrian rule

This section needs expansion with: the history of Austrian rule. You can help by adding to it. (October 2018)

The traditional measures used to keep the Russian Empire free of Jews^{[citation needed]} were hindered when the main territory of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was annexed during the partitions of Poland. During the second (1793) and the third (1795) partitions, large populations of Jews were absorbed by the Russian Empire, and Catherine the Great established the Pale of Settlement that included Congress Poland and Crimea.

During 1821 anti-Jewish riots in Odesa after the death of the Greek Orthodox patriarch in Constantinople, 14 Jews were killed. Some sources mark this episode as the first pogrom,^[32] while according to others (such as the Jewish Encyclopedia, 1911 ed.) say the first pogrom was an 1859 riot in Odesa. The term became common after a wave of anti-Jewish violence swept the southern Russian Empire (including Ukraine) between 1881 and 1884, after Jews were blamed for the assassination of Alexander II.

In May 1882, Alexander III of Russia introduced temporary regulations called May Laws that remained in effect until 1917. Systematic policies of discrimination, strict quotas on the number of Jews allowed to obtain education and professions caused widespread poverty and mass emigration. In 1886, an edict of Expulsion was applied to Jews in Kyiv. In 1893–1894, some areas of Crimea were removed from the Pale.

When Alexander III died in Crimea on 20 October 1894, according to Simon Dubnow: "as the body of the deceased was carried by railway to St. Petersburg, the same rails were carrying the Jewish exiles from Yalta to the Pale. The reign of Alexander III began with pogroms and concluded with expulsions."^[33]

Odesa became the home of a large Jewish community during the 19th century, and by 1897 Jews were estimated to account for some 37% of the population.^[34]

Political activism and emigration

Jews were over-represented in the Russian revolutionary leadership. However, most were hostile to Jewish culture and Jewish political parties, and were loyal to the Communist Party's atheism and proletarian internationalism, and committed to stamping out any sign of "Jewish cultural particularism".

Counter-revolutionary groups, including the Black Hundreds, opposed the Revolution with violent attacks on socialists and pogroms against Jews. A backlash came from the conservative elements of society, notably in spasmodic anti-Jewish attacks – around five hundred were killed in a single day in Odesa. Nicholas II claimed that 90% of revolutionaries were Jews.

Early 20th century

At the start of 20th century, anti-Jewish pogroms continued to occur in cities and towns across the Russian Empire such as Kishinev, Kyiv, Odesa, and many others. Numerous Jewish self-defense groups were organized to prevent the outbreak of pogroms among which the most successful one was under the leadership of Mishka Yaponchik in Odesa.

In 1905, a series of pogroms erupted at the same time as the Revolution against the government of Nicholas II. The chief organizers of the pogroms were the members of the Union of the Russian People (commonly known as the "Black Hundreds").^[35]

From 1911 to 1913, the antisemitic tenor of the period was characterized by a number of blood libel cases (accusations of Jews murdering Christians for ritual purposes). One of the most famous was the two-year trial of Menahem Mendel Beilis, who was charged with the murder of a Christian boy.^[36] The trial was showcased by the authorities to illustrate the perfidy of the Jewish population.^[37]

From March to May 1915, in the face of the German army, the government expelled thousands of Jews from the Empire's border areas, mainly the Pale of Settlement.^[18][19]

World War I aftermath

During the 1917 Russian Revolution and the ensuing Russian Civil War, an estimated 70,000 to 250,000 Jewish civilians were killed in atrocities throughout the former Russian Empire. In modern Ukraine an estimated 31,071 died in 1918–1920.^[20]

Ukrainian People's Republic

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