Veganism
The symbol widely used to denote a vegan-friendly product
Pronunciation	Veganism /ˈviːɡənɪzəm/ VEE-gə-niz-əm Vegan /ˈviːɡən/ VEE-gən[a]
Description	Avoiding the use of animal products, particularly in diet
Earliest proponents	Al-Ma'arri (c. 973 – c. 1057)[b] Roger Crab (1621 – 1680)[6] Johann Conrad Beissel (1691 – 1768)[7] James Pierrepont Greaves (1777 – 1842)[8] Lewis Gompertz (c. 1784 – 1861)[9] Amos Bronson Alcott (1799 – 1888)[10] Donald Watson (1910 – 2005)[11]
Term coined by	Dorothy Morgan and Donald Watson (November 1944)[3][4]
Notable vegans	List of vegans
Notable publications	List of vegan media

Veganism is the practice of abstaining from the use of animal products—particularly in diet—and an associated philosophy that rejects the commodity status of animals.^[c] A person who practices veganism is known as a vegan.

The foundations of veganism include ethical, moral, environmental, health and humanitarian arguments. Veganism excludes all animal use, for example in food (meat, fish, eggs, milk and dairy products, honey), in clothing and industry (leather, wool, fur and some cosmetics), entertainment (zoos, exotic pets, circuses), or services (guide dogs, police dogs, hunting dogs, working animals, or animal testing, including medical experimentation).

A person who practices veganism may do so to reduce animal deaths, minimize animal suffering, minimize their ecological footprint, or for health benefits.

Fruits, vegetables, legumes, nuts, grains and mushrooms are the basic elements of vegan food. Since ancient times individuals have been renouncing the consumption of products of animal origin, but the term "veganism" is modern: it was coined in 1944 by Donald Watson with the aim of differentiating it from vegetarianism, which rejects the consumption of meat but accepts the consumption of other products of animal origin, such as milk, dairy products and eggs. ^[3][15] Interest in veganism increased significantly in the 2010s.

Origins

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Veganism
List of vegans Vegan nutrition Vegan studies
Groups American Vegan Society Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine The Vegan Society
Ideas Abolitionism Animal-free agriculture Animal rights Carnism Ethical eating Sentientism Speciesism Vegan organic agriculture Veganuary World Vegan Day
Related List of vegan media Vegetarianism Plant-based diet
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Vegetarian etymology

The term "vegetarian" has been in use since around 1839 to refer to what was previously called a vegetable regimen or diet.^[16] Its origin is an irregular compound of vegetable and the suffix -arian (in the sense of "supporter, believer" as in humanitarian).^[17][18] The earliest known written use is attributed to actress, writer and abolitionist Fanny Kemble, in her Journal of a Residence on a Georgian plantation in 1838–1839.^[d]

History

Vegetarianism can be traced back to the Indus Valley civilization in 3300–1300 BCE in the Indian subcontinent,^[21][22][23] particularly in northern and western ancient India.^[24] Early vegetarians included Indian philosophers such as Parshavnatha, Mahavira, Acharya Kundakunda, Umaswati, Samantabhadra, and Valluvar; the Indian emperors Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka; Greek philosophers such as Empedocles, Theophrastus, Plutarch, Plotinus, and Porphyry; and the Roman poet Ovid and the playwright Seneca the Younger.^[25][26] The Greek sage Pythagoras may have advocated an early form of strict vegetarianism,^[27][28] but his life is so obscure that it is disputed whether he ever advocated any form of vegetarianism.^[29] He almost certainly prohibited his followers from eating beans^[29] and wearing woolen garments.^[29] Eudoxus of Cnidus, a student of Archytas and Plato, writes, "Pythagoras was distinguished by such purity and so avoided killing and killers that he not only abstained from animal foods, but even kept his distance from cooks and hunters".^[29] One of the earliest known vegans was the Arab poet al-Maʿarri, famous for his poem "I No Longer Steal From Nature". (c. 973 – c. 1057).^[30][b] Their arguments were based on health, the transmigration of souls, animal welfare, and the view—espoused by Porphyry in De Abstinentia ab Esu Animalium ("On Abstinence from Animal Food", c. 268 – c. 270)—that if humans deserve justice, then so do animals.^[25]

Vegetarianism established itself as a significant movement in 19th-century Britain and the United States.^[32] A minority of vegetarians avoided animal food entirely.^[33] In 1813, the poet Percy Bysshe Shelley published A Vindication of Natural Diet, advocating "abstinence from animal food and spirituous liquors", and in 1815, William Lambe, a London physician, said that his "water and vegetable diet" could cure anything from tuberculosis to acne.^[34] Lambe called animal food a "habitual irritation" and argued that "milk eating and flesh-eating are but branches of a common system and they must stand or fall together".^[35] Sylvester Graham's meatless Graham diet—mostly fruit, vegetables, water, and bread made at home with stoneground flour—became popular as a health remedy in the 1830s in the United States.^[36] Several vegan communities were established around this time. In Massachusetts, Amos Bronson Alcott, father of the novelist Louisa May Alcott, opened the Temple School in 1834 and Fruitlands in 1844,^[37][e] and in England, James Pierrepont Greaves founded the Concordium, a vegan community at Alcott House on Ham Common, in 1838.^[8][39]

Vegetarian Society

In 1843, members of Alcott House created the British and Foreign Society for the Promotion of Humanity and Abstinence from Animal Food,^[41] led by Sophia Chichester, a wealthy benefactor of Alcott House.^[42] Alcott House also helped to establish the UK Vegetarian Society, which held its first meeting in 1847 in Ramsgate, Kent.^[43] The Medical Times and Gazette in London reported in 1884:

There are two kinds of Vegetarians—one an extreme form, the members of which eat no animal food products what-so-ever; and a less extreme sect, who do not object to eggs, milk, or fish. The Vegetarian Society ... belongs to the latter more moderate division.^[33]

An article in the Society's magazine, the Vegetarian Messenger, in 1851 discussed alternatives to shoe leather, which suggests the presence of vegans within the membership who rejected animal use entirely, not only in diet.^[44] Henry S. Salt's 1886 A Plea for Vegetarianism and Other Essays asserts, "It is quite true that most—not all—Food Reformers admit into their diet such animal food as milk, butter, cheese, and eggs..."^[45] The first known vegan cookbook was Asenath Nicholson's Kitchen Philosophy for Vegetarians, published in 1849.^[46] C. W. Daniel published an early vegan cookbook, Rupert H. Wheldon's No Animal Food: Two Essays and 100 Recipes, in 1910.^[47] The consumption of milk and eggs became a battleground over the following decades. There were regular discussions about it in the Vegetarian Messenger; it appears from the correspondence pages that many opponents of veganism were vegetarians.^[47][48]

During a visit to London in 1931, Mahatma Gandhi—who had joined the Vegetarian Society's executive committee when he lived in London from 1888 to 1891—gave a speech to the Society arguing that it ought to promote a meat-free diet as a matter of morality, not health.^[40][49] Lacto-vegetarians acknowledged the ethical consistency of the vegan position but regarded a vegan diet as impracticable and were concerned that it might be an impediment to spreading vegetarianism if vegans found themselves unable to participate in social circles where no non-animal food was available. This became the predominant view of the Vegetarian Society, which in 1935 stated: "The lacto-vegetarians, on the whole, do not defend the practice of consuming the dairy products except on the ground of expediency."^[47]

Vegan etymology

External images
The Vegan News, first edition, 1944
Donald Watson, front row, fourth left, 1947[50]

In August 1944, several members of the Vegetarian Society asked that a section of its newsletter be devoted to non-dairy vegetarianism. When the request was denied, Donald Watson, secretary of the Leicester branch, set up a new quarterly newsletter, The Vegan News, in November 1944, priced tuppence.^[11] The word vegan was invented by Watson and Dorothy Morgan, a schoolteacher he later married.^[3][15] The word is based on "the first three and last two letters of 'vegetarian'" because it marked, in Watson's words, "the beginning and end of vegetarian".^[11][51] The Vegan News asked its readers if they could think of anything better than vegan to stand for "non-dairy vegetarian". They suggested allvega, neo-vegetarian, dairyban, vitan, benevore, sanivores, and beaumangeur.^[11][52]

The first edition attracted more than 100 letters, including from George Bernard Shaw, who resolved to give up eggs and dairy.^[48] The new Vegan Society held its first meeting in early November at the Attic Club, 144 High Holborn, London. In attendance were Donald Watson, Elsie B. Shrigley, Fay K. Henderson, Alfred Hy Haffenden, Paul Spencer and Bernard Drake, with Mme Pataleewa (Barbara Moore, a Russian-British engineer) observing.^[53] World Vegan Day is held every 1 November to mark the founding of the Society, and the Society considers November World Vegan Month.^[54][55]

The Vegan News changed its name to The Vegan in November 1945, by which time it had 500 subscribers.^[56] It published recipes and a "vegan trade list" of animal-free products, such as toothpastes, shoe polishes, stationery and glue.^[57] Vegan books appeared, including Vegan Recipes by Fay K. Henderson (1946)^[58][59] and Aids to a Vegan Diet for Children by Kathleen V. Mayo (1948).^[60][61]

The Vegan Society soon made clear that it rejected the use of animals for any purpose, not only in diet. In 1947, Watson wrote: "The vegan renounces it as superstitious that human life depends upon the exploitation of these creatures whose feelings are much the same as our own".^[62] From 1948, The Vegan's front page read: "Advocating living without exploitation", and in 1951, the Society published its definition of veganism as "the doctrine that man should live without exploiting animals".^[62][63] In 1956, its vice-president, Leslie Cross, founded the Plantmilk Society; and in 1965, as Plantmilk Ltd and later Plamil Foods, it began production of one of the first widely distributed soy milks in the Western world.^[64]

The first vegan society in the U.S. was founded in 1948 by Catherine Nimmo and Rubin Abramowitz in California, who distributed Watson's newsletter.^[65][66] In 1960, H. Jay Dinshah founded the American Vegan Society (AVS), linking veganism to the concept of ahimsa, "non-harming" in Sanskrit.^[66][67][68] According to Joanne Stepaniak, the word vegan was first published independently in 1962 by the Oxford Illustrated Dictionary, defined as "a vegetarian who eats no butter, eggs, cheese, or milk".^[69]

Definition

Distinctions may be made between several categories of veganism. Dietary vegans, also known as "strict vegetarians", refrain from consuming meat, eggs, dairy products, and any other animal-derived substances.^[g] An "ethical vegan" is someone who not only excludes animal products from their diet but also tries to avoid using animals,^[74] animal products,^[h] and animal-tested products,^[77] when practical.^[78] Another term is "environmental veganism", which refers to the avoidance of animal products on the grounds that the industrial farming of animals is environmentally damaging and unsustainable.^[79] Another motivation for veganism is concern about animal welfare.

Since 1988, The Vegan Society gives two definitions of veganism:

Veganism is a philosophy and way of living which seeks to exclude—as far as is possible and practicable—all forms of exploitation of, and cruelty to, animals for food, clothing or any other purpose; and by extension, promotes the development and use of animal-free alternatives for the benefit of animals, humans and the environment. In dietary terms it denotes the practice of dispensing with all products derived wholly or partly from animals.

— The Vegan Society, Definition of veganism, https://www.vegansociety.com/go-vegan/definition-veganism

The first definition by The Vegan Society is accepted among ethical and environmental vegans and the second definition by The Vegan Society is accepted among dietary vegans.^[80]

The European Commission was granted the power to adopt an implementing act on food information related to suitability of a food for vegans by the European Parliament and the Council of the European Union in article 36 of Regulation (EU) No 1169/2011.^[81] The German consumer protection minister conference approved a definition for food suitable for vegans on 22 April 2016.^[82] The European Vegetarian Union adopted this text for a proposal for a legally binding definition based on Regulation (EU) No 1169/2011 in July 2019.^[83]

In 2021, the International Organization for Standardization published standard ISO 23662 on "definitions and technical criteria for foods and food ingredients suitable for vegetarians or vegans and for labelling and claims".^[84] ISO 23662 was rejected by Nederlandse Vereniging voor Veganisme who found the standard inconsistent with their vision.^[85]

Increasing interest

Alternative food movements

In the 1960s and 1970s, a vegetarian food movement emerged as part of the counterculture in the United States that focused on concerns about diet, the environment, and a distrust of food producers, leading to increasing interest in organic gardening.^[86][87] One of the most influential vegetarian books of that time was Frances Moore Lappé's 1971 Diet for a Small Planet.^[88] It sold more than three million copies and suggested "getting off the top of the food chain".^[89]

The following decades saw research by a group of scientists and doctors in the U.S., including Dean Ornish, Caldwell Esselstyn, Neal D. Barnard, John A. McDougall, Michael Greger, and biochemist T. Colin Campbell, who argued that diets based on animal fat and animal protein, such as the Western pattern diet, were unhealthy.^[90] They produced a series of books that recommend vegan or vegetarian diets, including McDougall's The McDougall Plan (1983), John Robbins's Diet for a New America (1987), which associated meat eating with environmental damage, and Dr. Dean Ornish's Program for Reversing Heart Disease (1990).^[91] In 2003 two major North American dietitians' associations indicated that well-planned vegan diets were suitable for all life stages.^[92][93] This was followed by the film Earthlings (2005), Campbell's The China Study (2005), Rory Freedman and Kim Barnouin's Skinny Bitch (2005), Jonathan Safran Foer's Eating Animals (2009), and the film Forks over Knives (2011).^[94]

In the 1980s, veganism became associated with punk subculture and ideologies, particularly straight edge hardcore punk in the U.S.^[95] and anarcho-punk in the United Kingdom.^[96] This association continues into the 21st century, as evidenced by the prominence of vegan punk events such as Fluff Fest in Europe.^[97][98]

Into the mainstream

The vegan diet became increasingly mainstream in the 2010s,^{[99][100][101]} especially in the latter half.^[100][102] The Economist declared 2019 "the year of the vegan".^[103] Chain restaurants began marking vegan items on their menus and supermarkets improved their selection of vegan-processed food.^[104]

The global mock-meat market increased by 18 percent between 2005 and 2010,^[105] and in the U.S. by eight percent between 2012 and 2015, to $553 million a year.^[106] The Vegetarian Butcher (De Vegetarische Slager), the first known vegetarian butcher shop, selling mock meats, opened in the Netherlands in 2010,^[105][107] while America's first vegan butcher, the Herbivorous Butcher, opened in Minneapolis in 2016.^[106][108] Since 2017, more than 12,500 chain restaurant locations have begun offering Beyond Meat and Impossible Foods products, including Carl's Jr. outlets offering Beyond Burgers and Burger King outlets serving Impossible Whoppers. Plant-based meat sales in the U.S. grew 37% between 2017 and 2019.^[109]

In 2011, Europe's first vegan supermarkets appeared in Germany: Veganz in Berlin and Vegilicious in Dortmund.^[110][111] In 2013, the Oktoberfest in Munich (traditionally a meat-heavy event) offered vegan dishes for the first time in its 200-year history.^[112]

By 2016, 49% of Americans were drinking plant milk, and 91% still drank dairy milk.^[113] In the U.K., the plant milk market increased by 155 percent in two years, from 36 million litres (63 million imperial pints) in 2011 to 92 million (162 million imperial pints) in 2013.^[114] There was a 185% increase in new vegan products between 2012 and 2016 in the U.K.^[102] In 2017, the United States School Nutrition Association found 14% of school districts across the country were serving vegan school meals compared to 11.5% of schools offering vegan lunch in 2016.^[115]

In total, as of 2016^[update], the largest share of vegan consumers globally currently reside in Asia Pacific with nine percent of people following a vegan diet.^[116] In 2017, veganism rose in popularity in Hong Kong and China, particularly among millennials.^[117] China's vegan market was estimated to rise by more than 17% between 2015 and 2020,^[117][116] which is expected to be "the fastest growth rate internationally in that period".^[117] This exceeds the projected growth in the second and third fastest-growing vegan markets internationally in the same period, the United Arab Emirates (10.6%) and Australia (9.6%) respectively.^[116][118]

In 2018, Jacy Reese Anthis's book The End of Animal Farming argued that veganism will completely replace animal-based food by 2100.^[119] The book was featured in The Guardian,^[120] The New Republic,^[121] and Forbes, among other newspapers and magazines.^[122]

The growth of schools serving vegan school meals has increased in recent years with the lunches added by Los Angeles, California in 2018, Portland, Maine in 2019, and New York City in 2022.^[123]

In January 2021, 582,538 people from 209 countries and territories signed up for Veganuary, breaking the previous year's record of 400,000.^[124] That month, ONA in France became the first vegan restaurant in the country to receive a Michelin star.^[125] That year, 79 more plant-based restaurants around the world received Michelin stars.^[126] At the end of the year, a poll conducted by The Guardian showed that a new high of 36% of the British public were interested in veganism.^[127]

Prevalence by country

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