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A government-in-exile (GiE) is a political group that claims to be the legitimate government of a sovereign state or semi-sovereign state, but is unable to exercise legal power and instead resides in a foreign country.[1] Governments in exile usually plan to one day return to their native country and regain formal power. A government in exile differs from a rump state in the sense that the latter controls at least part of its former territory.[2] For example, during World War I, nearly all of Belgium was occupied by Germany, but Belgium and its allies held on to a small slice in the country's west.[3] A government in exile, in contrast, has lost all its territory. However, in practice the difference might be minor; in the above example, the Belgian government at Sainte-Adresse was located in French territory and acted as a government in exile for most practical purposes.[citation needed]
The governments in exile tend to occur during wartime occupation or in the aftermath of a civil war, revolution, or military coup. For example, during German expansion and advance in World War II, some European governments sought refuge in the United Kingdom, rather than face destruction at the hands of Nazi Germany. On the other hand, the Provisional Government of Free India proclaimed by Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose sought to use support from the invading Japanese to gain control of the country from what it viewed as British occupiers, and in the final year of WWII, after Nazi Germany was driven out of France, it maintained the remnants of the Nazi-sympathizing Vichy government as a French government in exile at the Sigmaringen enclave.
A government in exile may also form from widespread belief in the illegitimacy of a ruling government. Due to the outbreak of the Syrian Civil War in 2011, for instance, the National Coalition for Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces was formed by groups whose members sought to end the rule of the ruling Ba'ath Party.
The governments in exile may have little or no recognition from other states. The effectiveness of a government in exile depends primarily on the amount of support it receives, either from foreign governments or from the population of its own country. Some exiled governments come to develop into a formidable force, posing a serious challenge to the incumbent regime of the country, while others are maintained chiefly as a symbolic gesture.
The phenomenon of a government in exile predates the formal utilization of the term. In periods of monarchical government, exiled monarchs or dynasties sometimes set up exile courts, as the House of Stuart did when driven from their throne by Oliver Cromwell and again at the Glorious Revolution[4] (see James Francis Edward Stuart § Court-in-exile). The House of Bourbon would be another example because it continued to be recognized by other countries at the time as the legitimate government of France after it was overthrown by the populace during the French Revolution. This continued to last through the rule of Napoleon Bonaparte and the Napoleonic Wars from 1803–04 to 1815. With the spread of constitutional monarchy, monarchical governments which were exiled started to include a prime minister, such as the Dutch government during World War II headed by Pieter Sjoerds Gerbrandy.
The capital of a government-in-exile is known as a capital-in-exile, located outside the government's proclaimed territory. This differs from a temporary capital, which is located somewhere inside the government's controlled territory.
Current governments in exile
Current governments regarded by some as a "government-in-exile"
These governments once controlled all or most of their claimed territory, but continue to control a smaller part of it while also continuing to claim legitimate authority of the entire territory they once fully controlled.
| Name | Exile | Territory that the government still controls | Government presently controlling claimed territory | Notes | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 Republic of China
|
1949 | Taiwan and associated islands |  People's Republic of China
|
The currently Taipei-based Republic of China government does not regard itself as a government-in-exile, but is claimed to be such by some participants in the debate on the political status of Taiwan.[5] In addition to the island of Taiwan and some other islands it currently controls, the Republic of China formally maintains claims over territory now controlled by the People's Republic of China as well as some parts of Afghanistan, Bhutan, India, Japan, Mongolia, Myanmar, Pakistan, Russia, and Tajikistan. The usual formal reasoning on which this "government-in-exile" claim is based relies on an argument that the sovereignty of Taiwan was not legitimately handed to the Republic of China at the end of World War II,[6] and on that basis the Republic of China is located in foreign territory, therefore effectively making it a government in exile.[7] By contrast, this theory is not accepted by those who view the sovereignty of Taiwan as having been legitimately returned to the Republic of China at the end of the war.[8] Both the government of the People's Republic of China and the Pan-Blue Coalition (including the Kuomintang) in the Republic of China hold the latter view. However, there are also some who do not accept that the sovereignty of Taiwan was legitimately returned to the Republic of China at the end of the war nor that the Republic of China is a government-in-exile, and China's territory does not include Taiwan. The current Democratic Progressive Party in Taiwan is inclined to this view. | |
 Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic
|
1976 | Southeastern parts of Western Sahara |  Morocco
|
Proclaimed on 27 February 1976, following the Spanish withdrawal from what was until then Spanish Sahara after the POLISARIO insurgency. It is not strictly a government in exile since it does control 20–25% of its claimed territory. Nevertheless, it is often referred to as such, especially since most day-to-day government business is conducted in the Tindouf refugee camps in Algeria, which house most of the Sahrawi exile community, rather than in the proclaimed temporary capital (first Bir Lehlou, moved to Tifariti in 2008). |
Deposed governments of current states
These governments in exile were founded by deposed governments or rulers who continue to claim legitimate authority of the state they once controlled.
| Name | Exile since | State controlling its claimed territory | Notes | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
 Rada of the Belarusian Democratic Republic
|
1919 |  Republic of Belarus
|
It is the oldest government in exile in the world, led by Ivonka Survilla since 1997; based in Ottawa, Ontario. Declared a "extremist formation" in Belarus.[9] |
[10][11] |
 National Unity Government of Myanmar
|
2021 | Republic of the Union of Myanmar (State Administration Council)
|
This government was formed in response to the 2021 Myanmar coup d'état. The cabinet members of the National Unity Government are in hiding within Myanmar. |
[12][13][14] |
 Islamic Republic of Afghanistan (Panjshir alliance)
|
2021 |  Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan (Taliban)
|
Following the fall of Kabul on 15 August 2021, many of the Afghan governing officials fled the country. A group of former members of the Northern Alliance, led by the de jure vice president Amrullah Saleh, formed an anti-Taliban alliance seeking to regain control of the country. |
[15][16] |
Deposed governments of subnational territories
These governments in exile claim legitimacy of autonomous territories of another state and have been founded by deposed governments or rulers, who do not claim independence as a separate state.
| Name | Exile | Current control of claimed territory | Notes | References | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| since | as | by | as | |||
| Fujian Provincial Government and Kinmen-Matsu Joint Services Center
|
1949 | Province | People's Republic of China (Fujian)
|
Province | Chinese provincial government seat was exiled from its capital Fuzhou (Foochow) in Fukien in 1949 during the closing years of the Chinese Civil War to Jincheng Township in Kinmen County. Government moved to Hsintien Township in Taipei County, Taiwan Province in 1956 due to increased militarization. Seat relocated back to Jincheng in 1996. Despite the provincial government's de facto dissolution in 2019, this province continues to exist de jure without administrative function. | |
| Sinkiang Provincial Government
|
1949 | Province | People's Republic of China (Xinjiang)
|
Autonomous region | Relocated to Taipei, Taiwan in 1949 after Sinkiang fell to the communists. Despite the provincial government's de facto dissolution in 1992 after the Taiwan government accepted the "One China" Consensus, this province continues to exist de jure without administrative function. | |
  Government of the Autonomous Republic of Abkhazia
|
1993 | Autonomous republic |  Republic of Abkhazia
|
de facto independent state | Georgian provincial government, led by Ruslan Abashidze, whose territory is under the control of Abkhaz separatists; based in Tbilisi. | |
 Provisional Administration of South Ossetia
|
2008 | Provisional administration | Republic of South Ossetia
|
Georgian provincial administration, led by Dmitry Sanakoyev, whose territory is under the control of South Ossetian separatists; based in Tbilisi. | ||
  Autonomous Republic of Crimea
|
2014 | Autonomous republic |  Russia
|
Republic of Crimea | Ukrainian autonomous republic, whose territory was seized and annexed by Russia in March 2014, following a disputed status referendum; was based in Kherson until the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, now operating remotely in Ukraine.[17][18] | |
 Sevastopol
|
Special city | Federal city | Ukrainian special city, whose territory was seized and annexed by Russia in March 2014, following a disputed status referendum; was based in Kherson until the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, now operating remotely in Ukraine. | |||
 Luhansk Oblast
|
2022 | Oblast | Luhansk People's Republic | Ukrainian oblast, whose territory was partially seized (approx. 30%) by the Luhansk People's Republic (LPR) in 2014, and then subsequently completely seized in 2022 during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. Russia annexed the LPR on 30 September 2022. Previously, the LPR was a breakaway state (allegedly a Russian puppet state) formed by Russian-backed separatists. Currently operating remotely in Ukraine, despite Ukraine regaining control of a small slice of Luhansk Oblast's territory near Kharkiv Oblast during the 2022 Ukrainian eastern counteroffensive.[19] | ||
Alternative governments of current states
These governments have been founded in exile by political organisations and opposition parties, aspire to become actual governing authorities or claim to be legal successors to previously deposed governments, and have been founded as alternatives to incumbent governments.
| Name | Claimed exile | Exile proclamation | Government presently controlling claimed territory | Notes | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 Committee for the Five Northern Korean Provinces
|
1949 |  North Korea
|
Based in Seoul, the South Korean government's provisional administration for the five pre-1945 provinces which became North Korea at the end of World War II and the division of Korea. The five provinces are North Hamgyeong, South Hamgyeong, Hwanghae, North Pyeongan, South Pyeongan. | [20] | |
 National Council of Iran
|
1979 | 2013 |  Islamic Republic of Iran
|
Political umbrella coalition of forty Iranian opposition political organizations, led by Prince Reza Pahlavi; based in Potomac, Maryland. | |
 National Council of Resistance of Iran
|
1981 | Political umbrella coalition of five Iranian opposition political organizations, the largest organization being the People's Mujahedin of Iran led by Maryam and Massoud Rajavi; based in Paris with the aim to establish the "Democratic Republic of Iran" to replace the current religious rule in Iran. | [21] | ||
 Third Republic of Vietnam
|
1990 | 1991 |  Socialist Republic of Vietnam
|
The Third Republic of Vietnam, previously named the Provisional National Government of Vietnam, was formed in Orange County, California, by former soldiers and refugees from South Vietnam. Declared a terrorist organization in Vietnam.[22] | |
 Republic of Zaire Government in Exile
|
1997 | 2017 |  Democratic Republic of Congo
|
Established in Brussels by Congolese opposition politician Christian Malanga of the United Congolese Party in May 2017. Malanga was killed during an unsuccessful attempt at overthrowing the Congolese government on 19 May 2024. | |
 Progress Party of Equatorial Guinea
|
2003 | Republic of Equatorial Guinea
|
Proclaimed Severo Moto President of Equatorial Guinea; based in Madrid. | [23] | |
 Syrian National Council
|
2011 |  Syrian Arab Republic
|
Opposes the government of the Syrian Arab Republic, is member of the National Coalition for Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces; based in Istanbul. | [24] | |
| Syrian Interim Government
|
2012 | Opposes the government of the Syrian Arab Republic, has ties to some Free Syrian Army groups; based in Azaz. | |||
| Ukraine Salvation Committee
|
2014 | 2015 | Ukraine
|
After the Revolution of Dignity, Prime Minister Mykola Azarov, as well as pro-Russian and pro-Yanukovych members of the Second Azarov government fled to Russia and set up a government in exile. Aims to restore the Azarov government.[25][26] Widely seen as a pro-Russian puppet government.[27][28] | |
| The Provisional Government of Free Joseon
|
2017 | North Korea
|
Based in Seoul, notable for protecting the family of Kim Jong-nam (including Kim Han-sol) following his assassination in Malaysia.[29][30] | ||
| Coordination Council United Transitional Cabinet |
2020 | Republic of Belarus
|
Opposes Alexander Lukashenko's rule, led by candidate Sviatlana Tsikhanouskaya (exiled in Lithuania) her alleged victory over Lukashenko[31] in disputed election sparked nationwide protests in order for him to be removed from power. In 2020, Tsikhanouskaya was recognized as the legitimate president by the Rada of the Belarusian Democratic Republic. Declared an "extremist organization" in Belarus.[32] | ||
 Congress of People's Deputies
|
2022 | Russian Federation
|
The Congress of People's Deputies is a meeting of former deputies of different levels and convocations from Russia, claiming to be the transitional parliament of the Russian Federation or its possible successor. Former State Duma deputy Ilya Ponomarev became the public initiator of the congress. Sessions of the 1st Congress were held on 5–7 November in Jabłonna, Poland. Does not recognize the results of the 2024 Russian presidential election. Declared an "Undesirable organization" in Russia. | [33] | |
Alternative separatist governments of current subnational territories
These governments have been founded in exile by political organisations, opposition parties, and separatist movements, and desire to become the governing authorities of their territories as independent states, or claim to be the successor to previously deposed governments, and have been founded as alternatives to incumbent governments.
