A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | CH | I | J | K | L | M | N | O | P | Q | R | S | T | U | V | W | X | Y | Z | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9
Pharyngealized | |||
---|---|---|---|
◌ˤ | |||
◌̴ | |||
IPA Number | 423, 428 | ||
Encoding | |||
Entity (decimal) | ˤ̴ | ||
Unicode (hex) | U+02E4 U+0334 | ||
X-SAMPA | _?\ | ||
|
Pharyngealization is a secondary articulation of consonants or vowels by which the pharynx or epiglottis is constricted during the articulation of the sound.
IPA symbols
In the International Phonetic Alphabet, pharyngealization can be indicated by one of two methods:
- A tilde or swung dash (IPA Number 428) is written through the base letter (typographic overstrike). It is the older and more generic symbol. It indicates velarization, uvularization or pharyngealization, as in , the guttural equivalent of .
- The symbol ⟨ˤ⟩ (IPA Number 423) – a superscript variant of ⟨ʕ⟩, the voiced pharyngeal approximant – is written after the base letter. It indicates specifically a pharyngealized consonant, as in , a pharyngealized .
Computing codes
Since Unicode 1.1, there have been two similar superscript characters: IPA ⟨ˤ⟩ (U+02E4 ˤ MODIFIER LETTER SMALL REVERSED GLOTTAL STOP) and Semiticist ⟨ˁ⟩ (U+02C1 ˁ MODIFIER LETTER REVERSED GLOTTAL STOP). U+02E4 is formally a superscript ⟨ʕ⟩ (U+0295 ʕ LATIN LETTER PHARYNGEAL VOICED FRICATIVE, = reversed glottal stop), and in the Unicode charts looks like a simple superscript ⟨ʕ⟩, though in some fonts it looks like a superscript reversed lower-case letter glottal stop ⟨ɂ⟩. U+02C1 is a typographic alternative to ⟨ʿ⟩ (U+02BF ʿ MODIFIER LETTER LEFT HALF RING); which is used to transliterate the Semitic consonant ayin and which = reversed ⟨ʾ⟩, which itself transliterates the glottal Semitic consonants aleph and hamza. In the Unicode charts U+02C1 looks like a reversed ⟨ˀ⟩ (U+02C0 ˀ MODIFIER LETTER GLOTTAL STOP), which is used in the IPA for glottalization. There is no parallel Unicode distinction for modifier glottal stop. The IPA Handbook[1] lists U+02E4 as the Unicode equivalent of IPA Number 423, the dedicated IPA symbol for pharyngealization.
The superimposed tilde is assigned Unicode character U+0334. This was originally intended to combine with other letters to represent pharyngealization. However, that usage is now deprecated (though still functional), and several precomposed letters have been adopted to replace it. These are the labial consonants ⟨ᵱ ᵬ ᵮ ᵯ⟩ and the coronal consonants ⟨ᵵ ᵭ ᵴ ᵶ ᵰ ᵲ ᵳ ɫ⟩.
Character | ʕ | ˤ | ˁ | ʿ | ̴ | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Unicode name | Latin letter pharyngeal voiced fricative | modifier letter small reversed glottal stop | modifier letter reversed glottal stop | modifier letter left half ring | combining tilde overlay | |||||
Character encoding | decimal | hex | decimal | hex | decimal | hex | decimal | hex | decimal | hex |
661 | 0295 | 740 | 02E4 | 705 | 02C1 | 703 | 02BF | 820 | 0334 | |
Numeric character reference | ʕ | ʕ | ˤ | ˤ | ˁ | ˁ | ʿ | ʿ | ̴ | ̴ |
Usage
Ubykh, an extinct Northwest Caucasian language spoken in Russia and Turkey, used pharyngealization in 14 pharyngealized consonants. Chilcotin has pharyngealized consonants that trigger pharyngealization of vowels. Many languages (such as Salishan, Sahaptian) in the Plateau culture area of North America also have pharyngealization processes that are triggered by pharyngeal or pharyngealized consonants, which affect vowels.
The Tuu/"Khoisan" language Taa (or !Xóõ) has pharyngealized vowels that contrast phonemically with voiced, breathy and epiglottalized vowels.[2] That feature is represented in the orthography by a tilde under the respective pharyngealized vowel. In Tuu languages, epiglottalized vowels are phonemic.
For many languages, pharyngealization is generally associated with more dental articulations of coronal consonants. Dark l tends to be dental or denti-alveolar, but clear l tends to be retracted to an alveolar position.[3]
Arabic and Syriac use secondary uvularization, which is generally not distinguished from pharyngealization, for the "emphatic" coronal consonants.
Examples of pharyngealized consonants
(Uvularized consonants are not distinguished.)
Stops
- pharyngealized voiceless alveolar stop (in Chechen, Berber, Arabic, Kurmanji, Mizrahi and Classical Hebrew)
- pharyngealized voiced alveolar stop (in Chechen, Tamazight and Arabic)
- pharyngealized voiceless bilabial stop (in Kurmanji, Chechen and Ubykh)
- pharyngealized voiced bilabial stop (in Chechen, Ubykh, Siwa, Shihhi Arabic and Iraqi Arabic, allophonic in Adyghe and Kabardian)
- pharyngealized voiceless uvular stop (in Ubykh, Tsakhur, and Archi)
- pharyngealized voiced uvular stop (in Tsakhur)
- pharyngealized glottal stop (in Shihhi Arabic; allophonic in Chechen)
- pharyngealized voiceless velar plosive (in Kurmanji)
- pharyngealized voiced velar plosive (in Sorani[4])
Fricativesedit
- pharyngealized voiceless alveolar sibilant (in Chechen, Kurmanji, Arabic, Classical Hebrew and Northern Berber)
- pharyngealized voiced alveolar sibilant (in Chechen, Berber, Arabic and Kurmanji)
- pharyngealized voiceless postalveolar fricative ʃˤ (in Chechen)
- pharyngealized voiced postalveolar fricative ʒˤ (in Chechen)
- pharyngealized voiceless dental fricative θˤ (as θ̬ˤ, a variant pronunciation in Mehri)
- pharyngealized voiced dental fricative (in Arabic: ظ)
- pharyngealized voiced alveolar lateral fricative (in Classical Arabic)
- pharyngealized voiceless labiodental fricative fˤ (in Sorani[4])
- pharyngealized voiced labiodental fricative vˤ (in Ubykh)
- pharyngealized voiceless uvular fricative χˤ (in Ubykh, Tsakhur, Archi and Bzyb Abkhaz)
- pharyngealized voiced uvular fricative ʁˤ (in Ubykh, Tsakhur and Archi)
- pharyngealized voiceless glottal fricative hˤ (in Tsakhur)
Affricatesedit
- pharyngealized voiceless alveolar affricate tsˤ (in Chechen)
- pharyngealized voiced alveolar affricate dzˤ (in Chechen)
- pharyngealized voiceless postalveolar affricate tʃˤ (in Chechen and Kurmanji)
- pharyngealized voiced postalveolar affricate dʒˤ (in Chechen)
Trillsedit
- pharyngealized voiced alveolar trill rˁ (in Chechen and Siwa)
Nasalsedit
- pharyngealized bilabial nasal mˤ (in Chechen, Ubykh, Moroccan Darija, and Iraqi Arabic)
- pharyngealized alveolar nasal nˤ (in Chechen)
Approximantsedit
- pharyngealized labialized velar approximant wˤ (in Shihhi Arabic, Chechen and Ubykh)
- pharyngealized alveolar lateral approximant lˤ (in Chechen, and Northern Standard Dutch)
- pharyngealized labialized postalveolar approximant (an /r/ variant in American English)
- pharyngealized velar approximant ɹ̈ˤ, with the body of the tongue bunched up at the velum (in some dialects of American English and Dutch)
Examples of pharyngealized vowelsedit
- pharyngealized open-mid back rounded vowel ɔˤ in Northern Standard Dutch
- pharyngealized vowels ɪˤ ɜˤ ʊˤ ɛˤ ~ æˤ ɐˤ ~ aˤ ɔˤ aˤ ~ ɑˤ in the Air Tamajeq language
- pharyngealized vowels iˤ uˤ oˤ ɑˤ in Even
- pharyngealized vowels iˤ uˤ eˤ əˤ oˤ aˤ in Tsakhur
- pharyngealized vowels iˤ uˤ ɛˤ ɔˤ ɑˤ in Udi
- pharyngealized vowels ĩˤ ũˤ ãˤ iˀˤ uˀˤ ɛˀˤ ɔˀˤ aˀˤ in Mambay (Mangbai)
- pharyngealized vowels iˤ uˤ eˤ oˤ aˤ in ǃXóõ
See alsoedit
- Velarization
- Creaky voice (laryngealization)
- Pharyngeal consonant
- Epiglottal consonant
- Pharynx
Notesedit
- ^ International Phonetic Association (1999:172–173)
- ^ Ladefoged (2005:183)
- ^ Recasens & Espinosa (2005:4)
- ^ a b Asadpour & Mohammadi (2014), p. 109.
Referencesedit
- Ladefoged, Peter (2005). Vowels and Consonants (Second ed.). Blackwell.
- Recasens, Daniel; Espinosa, Aina (2005). "Articulatory, positional and coarticulatory characteristics for clear /l/ and dark /l/: evidence from two Catalan dialects". Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 35 (1): 1–25. doi:10.1017/S0025100305001878. S2CID 14140079.
- International Phonetic Association, ed. (1999). Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A Guide to the Use of the International Phonetic Alphabet. Cambridge University Press.
Further readingedit
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