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The Yao people (simplified Chinese: 瑶族; traditional Chinese: 瑤族; pinyin: Yáozú) or Dao (Vietnamese: người Dao) is a classification for various ethnic minorities in China and Vietnam. Their majority branch is also known as Mien. They are one of the 56 officially recognized ethnic groups in China and reside in the mountainous southwest and south of the country. They also form one of the 54 ethnic groups officially recognized by Vietnam. They numbered 2,796,003 in the 2010 Chinese census and 891,151 in the 2019 Vietnamese census. An estimated 60,000 Yao of the Iu Mien branch reside in the United States, mostly in the Western coastal states.[1]
History
Early history
The origins of the Yao can be traced back two millennia to Hunan. They are said to be descended from the Nanman.[2][better source needed] Their descriptions in Book of Rites and Romance of the Three Kingdoms cannot be taken as facts however, as they are vague and heavily romanticized, even the exonym itself meant vague "southern barbarians", in no way being specific nor accurate about Yao history and culture.
The Yao and Hmong were among the rebels during the Miao Rebellions against the Ming dynasty. As the Han Chinese expanded into South China, the Yao retreated into the highlands between Hunan and Guizhou to the north and Guangdong and Guangxi to the south, and stretching into Eastern Yunnan.[3] Around 1890, the Guangdong government started taking action against Yao in Northwestern Guangdong.[4]
The first Chinese exonym for "Yao people" was the graphic pejorativeyao猺 (犭'DOG' radical with the phonetic 䍃; 'jackal'). In the 20th century language reforms, this was changed to its present form, with the ⽟'JADE' radical.
Laotian Civil War
During the Laotian Civil War, the Yao tribes of Laos had a good relationship with U.S. forces and were dubbed to be an "efficient friendly force". They fought in favour of the (South Vietnamese) government against the communists.[5] This relationship caused the new communist Laotian government to target Yao tribal groups once the war was over. This triggered further immigration into Thailand, where the tribes would be put into camps along the Thailand-Laos border.
Immigration to the United States
After obtaining refugee status from the Thai government, and with the help of the United Nations, many Yao people were able to obtain sponsorship into the United States (although many remain in Thailand). Most of the Yao who have immigrated to the United States have settled along the Western part of the US, mainly in central and northern California such as Visalia, Oakland, Oroville, Redding, Richmond, Sacramento, but also in parts of Oregon like Portland, Salem, and Beaverton as well as the state of Washington in Seattle and Renton. See Mien American for those identified as Mien.
Culture, society, and economy
A Yao child with traditional dress in GuangxiA red Yao woman in Vietnam
The Yao people have been farmers for over a thousand years, mostly rice cultivation through plowing, although a few practice slash-and-burn agriculture. Where the Yao live nearby forested regions, they also engage in hunting.[6]
During the Southern Song (1127–1279), an imperial Chinese observer, Zhou Qufei, described the Yao as wearing distinctive fine blue clothing produced using indigo.[7]
The Yao celebrate their Pan Wang (King Pan) festival annually on the sixteenth day of the tenth lunar month. The festival celebrates the mythical original story of the Yao people, and has evolved "into a happy holiday for the Yao to celebrate a good harvest and worship their ancestors."[8]
Taoism has historically been important to the Yao.[9] Jinag Yingliang, in a 1948 study, argued that Yao religion was characterized by (1) a process of Han Chinese-influenced Daoisation (Chinese: 道教化; pinyin: Dàojiào huà); (2) the endurance of pre-Daoist folk religion; and (3) some Buddhist beliefs.
The description of Yao religion is similar to the definition of Chinese folk religion as described by Arthur Wolf and Steve Sangren.[10] Scholar Zhang Youjun takes issue with claims of "strong Buddhist influence" on the Yao, arguing that "although Yao ritual texts contain Buddhist expression, the Yao do not believe in Buddhism at all. They are resolutely Taoist."[10]
Groups and languages
A Yao stilt house in Vietnam
There are several distinct groups within the Yao nationality, and they speak several different languages, The Iu Mien comprise 70% of the Yao population.[citation needed]
In addition to China, Yao also live in northern Vietnam (where they are called Dao), northern Laos, and Myanmar. There are around 60,000 Yao in northern Thailand, where they are one of the six main hill tribes. The lowland-living Lanten of Laos, who speak Kim Mun, and the highland-living Iu Mien of Laos are two different Yao groups. There are also many Iu Mien Americans, mainly refugees from the highlands of Laos. The Iu Mien do not call themselves "Yao". Not all "Yao" are Iu Mien. A group of 61,000 people on Hainan speak the Yao language Kim Mun; 139,000 speakers of Kim Mun live in other parts of China (Yunnan and Guangxi), and 174,500 live in Laos and Vietnam.[11]
The Bunu people call themselves Nuox[no13], Buod nuox , Dungb nuox , or their official name Yaof zuf . Only 258,000 of the 439,000 people categorised as Bunu in the 1982 census speak Bunu; 100,000 speak the Tai–Kadai Zhuang languages, and 181,000 speak Chinese and the Tai–Kadai Bouyei language.[citation needed]
Mao (2004)
Mao Zongwu (2004:7-8)[12] gives a detailed list of various Yao endonyms (i.e., self-designated names) and the Chinese names of various groups and clans associated with them. Endonyms are written in the International Phonetic Alphabet with numerical Chao tones.
Autonym mjen31 勉 or ju31mjen31 优勉: Pangu Yao 盘古瑶, Pan Yao 盘瑶, Panhu Yao 盘瓠瑶, Trans-Mountain / Guoshan Yao 过山瑶, Large-Board / Daban Yao 大板瑶, Small-Board / Xiaoban Yao 小板瑶, Board / Ban Yao 板瑶, Top-Board / Dingban Yao 顶板瑶, Sharp-Headed / Jiantou Yao 尖头瑶, Level-Headed / Pingtou Yao 平头瑶, Red-Head / Hongtou Yao 红头瑶, Arrow-Pole / Jian'gan Yao 箭杆瑶, Cattle-Horn Yao / Niujiao 牛角瑶, Tu Yao 土瑶 (in Hezhou, Guangxi), Native / Bendi Yao 本地瑶, Flowery / Hua Yao 花瑶 (in Yangshuo County, Guangxi), Ao Yao 坳瑶, Zheng Yao 正瑶, Liang Yao 粮瑶
Autonym kim33mun33 金门 or kem53di35mun21 甘迪门: Blue-Indigo / Landian Yao 蓝靛瑶, Shanzi Yao 山子瑶, Flowery-Headed / Huatou Yao 花头瑶, Sand / Sha Yao 沙瑶, Level-Headed / Pingtou Yao 平头瑶, Bazi Yao 坝子瑶
Autonym bjau31mɔn31 标曼 or ɕi31mun31 史门: Min Yao 民瑶, "Four Great" Min Yao 四大民瑶
Autonym bjau31min31 标敏 or tɕau44koŋ55meŋ55 交公勉: East Mountain / Dongshan Yao 东山瑶 (in Quanzhou County, Guangxi), Dog-Headed / Goutou Yao 狗头瑶
Autonym pu53nu25 布努: Beilou Yao 背篓瑶, Beilong Yao 背陇瑶, West Mountain / Xishan Yao 西山瑶, East Mountain Yao / Dongshan 东山瑶 (in Bama Yao Autonomous County, Guangxi), Tudi Yao 土地瑶, Tu Yao 土瑶 (in Pingguo County and Mashan County, Guangxi), Mountain / Shan Yao 山瑶, Man Yao 蛮瑶, East Valley / Dongnong Yao 东弄瑶, West Valley / Xinong Yao 西弄瑶, Fan Yao 反瑶, Anding Yao 安定瑶, White Yao 白瑶, Black Yao 黑瑶, Black-Trouser / Heiku Yao 黑裤瑶, Long-Shirt / Changshan Yao 长衫瑶
Autonym pa31ŋ̊ŋ35 巴哼: Dog Yao 狗瑶, Eight-Surname / Baxing Yao 八姓瑶, Red Yao 红瑶 (in Liping and Congjiang Counties of Guizhou; Rongshui Miao Autonomous County and Longsheng Various Nationalities Autonomous County of Guangxi), Wood Yao 木瑶
Autonym lak25kja25 拉珈: Tea Mountain / Chashan Yao 茶山瑶
Plains Yao
Groups considered to be "Plains Yao" (Pingdi Yao 平地瑶) include:[citation needed]
Autonym Bingduoyou 炳多尤 (Pingdi Yao 平地瑶, Dainaijiang 代奈江): in Jianghua Yao Autonomous County 江华 of Hunan; Gongcheng 恭城, Fuchuan 富川, Zhongshan 钟山, and Lingui 临桂 counties of Guangxi
Autonym Yeheni 爷贺尼 (Pingdi Yao 平地瑶): in Jianghua Yao Autonomous County 江华, Hunan (Jianghua County Gazetteer). The Yeheni speak a divergent Chinese dialect. It is spoken in Taoxu Town 涛圩镇 and Helukou Town 河路口镇 in Jianghua County, Hunan.[13]
Autonym Younian 优念 (Pinghua-speaking Red Yao 平话红瑶; ʑou13ȵen13): in Longsheng 龙胜 and Guanyang 灌阳 counties of Guangxi. According to Chen Qiguang (2013:30),[14] the ʑəu21ȵien21 number about 10,000 speakers in Sishui 泗水, Madi 马堤, Mengshan 孟山, Jiangliu 江柳, and other locations of Longsheng County.
Autonym Youjia 优嘉 (Yaojia 瑶家): in Guanyang County 灌阳, Guangxi
Jingdong Yao 景东县瑶族 (autonym: Lewu people 乐舞人): Jingdong County 景东彝族自治县, Yunnan. According to the Jingdong County Gazetteer (1994:519), ethnic Yao numbered 3,889 individuals in 1990, and lived mainly in Chaqing 岔箐[15] and Dasongshu 大松树[16] of Taizhong 太忠乡.
Iu Mien: Black Dao of Dien Bien and Lai Chau; Red Dao of southern Lao Cai, Yen Bai, and Son La
Kim Mien: Dao Tà Pán 大板瑶 (Dao Đại Bản, Dao Coóc Ngáng,[18] Dao Sừng[19]) of Ha Giang, Cao Bang, and Yen Bai; Red Dao of northern and eastern Lao Cai; Hongtou Red Dao 红头瑶 in northern Lai Chau
Dao Đỏ (Hùng Thầu Dào, Dao Coóc Ngáng, Dao Quý Lâm): located in Yen Bai, Lao Cai, Lai Chau, Tuyen Quang, Ha Giang, Cao Bang, Bac Kan, Thai Nguyen
Dao Quần Chẹt (Dao Sơn Đầu, Dao Tam Đảo, Dao Nga Hoàng): located in Hoa Binh, Ha Tay, Phu Tho, Vinh Yen, Son La, Yen Bai
Dao Thanh Phán (Dao Coóc Mùn, Dao Đội Ván, Dao Lô Gang, Dao Dụ Kiùn, Dao Thêu): located in Tuyen Quang, Bac Kan, Thai Nguyen, Lang Son, Quang Ninh, Bac Giang
Dao Thanh Y: located in Tuyen Quang, Bac Giang, Quang Ninh
Dao Áo Dài (Dao Tuyển, Dao Chàm, Dao Slán Chỉ): located in Yen Bai, Lao Cai, Tuyen Quang, Ha Giang, Bac Kan
Distribution
Yao peoples are distributed primarily in the provinces Hunan, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, and Yunnan of China. Ethnic Yao are also found in Vietnam, Laos, and Thailand.
In China
Distribution of ethnic Yao population in China, based on 2000 Chinese Census.Yao autonomous prefectures and counties in China.
By county
County-level distribution of the Yao, 2000 Chinese Census
(Only counties or county equivalents with more than 0.1% of county population are shown.)
County/City
Yao %
Yao
Total
Hunan Province
1.11
704,564
63,274,173
Dongkou County
1.55
11,639
752,581
Xinning County
2.59
14,438
557,120
Chenzhou City
1.63
70,513
4,324,812
Beihu District
1.25
3,921
314,477
Rucheng County
15.45
52,955
342,861
Zixing City
1.22
4,284
351,581
Yongzhou City
9.57
513,831
5,367,106
Shuangpai County
4.90
7,916
161,510
Dao County
5.92
36,938
624,199
Jiangyong County
62.39
147,164
235,893
Ningyuan County
2.16
15,943
738,259
Lanshan County
5.29
17,608
332,937
Xintian County
1.82
6,541
358,831
Jianghua Yao Autonomous County
61.87
270,889
437,835
Huaihua City
1.55
71,952
4,639,738
Zhongfang County
1.33
3,147
236,675
Chenxi County
6.77
32,405
478,708
Xupu County
3.18
25,398
798,983
Hongjiang City
1.47
7,137
485,061
Guangdong Province
0.24
202,667
85,225,007
Shaoguan City
1.13
31,042
2,735,433
Shixing County
2.00
4,115
205,684
Ruyuan Yao Autonomous County
10.75
19,121
177,894
Longmen County
2.51
6,726
267,949
Qingyuan City
3.05
96,043
3,146,713
Lianshan Zhuang and Yao Autonomous County
14.33
14,195
99,070
Liannan Yao Autonomous County
52.29
69,968
133,814
Lianzhou City
1.31
5,366
409,360
Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region
3.36
1,471,946
43,854,538
Xincheng District
1.30
5,560
426,346
Chengbei District
1.50
5,901
392,726
Shijiao District
1.15
2,949
256,730
Guilin City
8.15
375,902
4,614,670
Xiufeng District
1.63
2,050
125,924
Diecai District
1.72
2,312
134,401
Xiangshan District
1.42
3,527
249,135
Qixing District
1.76
4,003
227,278
Lingui County
3.53
14,957
424,182
Lingchuan County
3.20
10,169
318,036
Quanzhou County
4.29
27,984
652,963
Xing'an County
2.35
8,317
353,920
Yongfu County
3.48
8,202
235,368
Guanyang County
7.77
17,971
231,288
Longsheng Various Nationalities Autonomous County
17.56
28,237
160,796
Ziyuan County
3.19
5,014
156,946
Pingle County
14.08
55,553
394,575
Lipu County
7.48
25,893
346,169
Gongcheng Yao Autonomous County
58.60
158,937
271,216
Wuzhou City
1.15
32,021
2,796,087
Mengshan County
12.02
22,587
187,918
Fangchenggang City
4.63
34,074
735,952
Gangkou District
1.37
1,462
106,403
Fangcheng District
6.59
20,840
316,111
Shangsi County
4.22
8,666
205,307
Dongxing City
2.87
3,106
108,131
Guigang City
1.86
71,063
3,827,945
Pingnan County
6.29
66,391
1,055,782
Nanning City
1.43
68,975
4,839,536
Shanglin County
6.50
24,697
379,986
Mashan County
8.48
33,873
399,439
Liuzhou City
3.57
125,839
3,522,322
Heshan City
1.87
2,452
131,249
Luzhai County
2.01
8,424
418,665
Laibin County
1.25
10,475
839,790
Rong'an County
1.88
5,313
283,029
Sanjiang Dong Autonomous County
3.88
11,798
304,149
Rongshui Miao Autonomous County
6.48
27,560
425,608
Jinxiu Yao Autonomous County
37.45
50,532
134,934
Xincheng County
2.05
7,051
343,556
Hezhou Prefecture
12.49
241,822
1,936,849
Hezhou City
4.84
41,130
850,023
Zhaoping County
4.46
15,746
353,298
Zhongshan County
8.75
40241
460021
Fuchuan Yao Autonomous County
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China: 2,796,003 (2010)
Vietnam: 891,151 (2019)[1]
